Call Of The Marching Bell
English Translation and Commentary
of
BÿANG-E-DARÿ
(Allama Muhammad Iqbal)
Dr. M.A.K. Khalil
PREFACE
‘All«mah Iqb«l's works have interested me since very early age. I have derived increasing degrees of pleasure, guidance and inspiration from them with the increase in my knowledge and discernment and with expanding perception. Preparation of a translation or commentary of one of his books has always been my ambition, so that I could share the benefits of ‘All«mah Iqb«l's qualities of the head and the heart with others. However I could not realize this ambition due to excessive preoccupation with my professional commitments. Retirement from the Canadian Forestry Service, a few years ago, provided the necessary opportunity, which I availed of, and started working on the commentary seriously. For reasons given in Chapter 1 I selected B«ng-i-Dar« for this effort.
People with knowledge of Urdu and Persian can derive a good degree of benefit and pleasure from the works of ‘All«mah Iqb«l in original. This translation and commentary is, therefore, directed primarily to the needs of the English knowing admirers of ‘All«mah Iqb«l who do not know Urdu and Persian. It must also be appreciated that a knowledge of Urdu and Persian languages alone is not sufficient for a full comprehension of his works. A good knowledge of Islamic history and thought, particularly the Holy Qur'an, is necessary for this purpose. In addition, some knowledge of world history, particularly its influence on the Muslim world is also essential. It is also necessary to know the life and times of ‘All«mah Iqb«l and their influence on his thought. This material cannot be provided in a mere translation and calls for a commentary, for which reason I have adopted the commentary approach.
Regarding his biography the "Preface" by Sir 'Abd al-Qadir, published with the original book and presented in translation in Chapter 4 is fairly detailed up to 1924. Events of the 1924-38 period and a review of the times of ‘All«mah Iqb«l have been summarized in Chapter 2. Similarly, an account of the sources of ‘All«mah Iqb«l's thought in the secular as well as spiritual fields has been provided in Chapter 3, Section I. This is followed by Section II which has a comprehensive discussion of his views on the subjects included in B«nq-i-Dar«. Other necessary information has been provided in Appendices and in Introduction and Explanatory Notes for each poem.
Much though I had liked to make the translation in verse I realized that the restraints of the rules of prosody would militate against a clear and faithful rendering of his thought in English. Clarity of the subject matter has been of paramount importance in my mind. Consequently I adopted the prose style. However, I have tried to keep the two hemi-stiches of every verse equal to each other as far as possible. Though at times this was a difficult task I have succeeded in doing my best. I have also used the "free verse" in some cases where rhyming was possible without sacrificing clarity.
Transliteration of Arabic, Persian and Urdu words and proper names has been done according to the table appearing before the Preface.
The names of persons mentioned in the text are their last or the most popular ones. Biographical notes have been provided on them in Appendix I, in which their contribution to Islam and Muslims as well as their influence on ‘All«mah Iqb«l have been briefly described. This appendix has been arranged in the alphabetical order of the last or the most popular name of the biographee. The information provided in this appendix is commensurate with the importance of the biographee in Iqb«lics studies, and aims at providing an adequate picture of his life and work. Hopefully, this will widen the reader's perception. References to them have been provided in the explanatory notes. Biographies of a few relatively less important persons from the above point of view have been provided in the form of short notes in the introduction or the explanatory notes of the relevant poem. The source of information for each bigraphee has been indicated after the biography for more details, if desired by the reader.
Some technical terms in Arabic and Persian have no equivalents in English because of the absence of their concepts in the English speaking world. Such words have been used in original in the text and printed in italics. They are explained in Appendix II. This appendix is arranged in the alphabetical order of the term. References to them have not been made in the text or explanatory notes for brevity. The reader is advised to refer to Appendix II where necessary. However, some terms need immediate explanation for understanding the sentence in which they occur. Such words have been explained in the explanatory notes after the chapter or the poem concerned
The literature cited in the text has been listed in Appendix III in the alphabetical order of the last name of the author. References to Appendix III have been made in the introduction and explanatory notes of the relevant poems.
Translations of all Urdu and Persian Verses appearing in Chapters 1-4 and in the "Introduction" and "Explanatory Notes" of individual poems in Chapters 5-7 have been serially numbered in the text. These verses appear in appendix V. This has been done to enable the readers to read them in original, if they want to enjoy their excellence and beauty, without breaking the flow of the text.
All dates are given in the Christian Era calendar for convenience in visualizing the time frame of the event under review. The dates in the Hijrâ calender given in sourse references have been converted into the Christian calendar :
A translation seldom, if ever, equals the original in candor and literary excellence.Translation of verse poses even greater difficulties than that of prose in this respect. Special difficulty arises in rendering Urdu and Persian idioms into English on account of basic differences in the background, history and social environment of these languages compared with English. However, I have used parallel English idioms where they were available. Here also I have tried to be as close to the original as possible.
I want to avail of this opportunity to express my most sincere gratitude and appreciation to the following sources from whose help and cooperation I have been much benefited. First on this list is my good friend, Dr. Anver Rahimatullah, Professor, Department of Bio-chemistry, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's Newfoundland, Canada whose help throughout the work has been invaluable. I also acknowledge the help received from Dr. ‘Abd el-Sal«m Mesbah, Director, Department of Medical Physics, Dr. H. Bliss Murphy Cancer Center, St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada and Dr. ‘Abd al-Hamâd Salâmâ, Education Officer, Department of Labor Relations, Government of Newfoundland, Canada. The Director, Faculty and reviewers of the Iqb«l Academy Pakistan, Lahore, Pakistan have given me great help and valuable advice in improving the manuscript. Special thanks are due to Dr. Suheyl Umar, Dr. Waheed Ishrat, Deputy Director and Assistant Director respectivety of the Academy for frequent advice and other help in preparing the final draft. The sincere and continuous work of Mr. Babar Sultan, Chief Engineer, I.C.C. lahore, Pakistan in this project deserves special appreciation. The help provided very sincerely by Dr. Wasiulah, Director , Department of Environment, Government of Newfoundland and by Mr. Towhid Bin Muzaffar, Department of Linguistics, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John’s, Newfoundland, Canada, in printing and distribution of the book is very cordially appreciated. The perseverance and forbearance as well as the encouragement of my wife, Aleemunnisa Khalil, during the periods of frustration and stress, of which I had a fair share, is deserving of the greatest appreciation. May God reward them all for their help to me in this cause.
Like all human efforts I cannot claim perfection for this book. I am conscious of the possibility of shortcomings, and request the readers to inform me about them so that a better edition may be possible soon and I may get help for other similar work, which I plan to continue.
My prayer to God is that this commentary may be good enough to serve its intended purpose of conveying the message of ‘All«mah Iqb«l to the English knowing world. Only time will show the extent to which this has been achieved.
M.A.K. Khalil,
St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada
January 1996
INTRODUCTION
The struggle between good and evil has been the saga of the human race since eternity. God created S. ÿdam, the primeval Man, after creation of the universe (Qur’an 2:29-30), designated him as the masterpiece of His creation and made him His vicegerent on earth (Qur’«n 2:30-39; 7:11; 15:28-30; 17:61; 20:115-19; 38:71-73). This was so because only Man was endowed with appreciation and knowledge of the purpose of creation of the universe and only he had the potential for its management and beautification. Simultaneously, Iblâs was degraded from a favorite Jinn to the lowest of the low on account of his arrogance in disobeying the God's Command for paying homage to S. ÿdam by prostrating before him (Qur'«n 2:34; 7:12-18; 15:31-35;17:62-65; 20:120; 38:76-78). Iblâs vowed to misguide mankind, but God warned him that good persons would not be misled by him and would fight against him (Qur’«n 7:18; 15:39-44; 17:62-65; 20:120; 38:79-85). Thus the above mentioned struggle started which has continued till today. ‘All«mah Iqb«l has alluded to this phenomenon frequently.
(1) Combat has continued from eternity to this day
Between the lamp of Mustaf« and spark of Bë Lahab
(Appendix III, No. 25)
Struggle against evil is incumbent upon Man and is his duty and destiny as the vicegerent of God. It is more so upon a Mu'min because he has been endowed with the Holy Qur’«n and all previous Divinely revealed books for guidance. This struggle is in spiritual, intellectual as well as material fields. It requires creation and development of spiritual, intellectual as well as material strength. Spiritual and intellectual strength can be achieved only by developing Khudâ, so as to create appreciation of one's potential and develop spiritual and moral strength to face evil. The most important component of the development of Khudâ is an ardent and sincere Love of God and appreciation of "‘Abdiyat". A living faith, not just blind belief, in the Existence of God as well as comprehension of His Essence and Attributes is needed. The more important part of this is the belief in God being the sole Arbiter of human destinies. It is necessary to understand that He is not only the Creator of the universe but is also its eternal and sole Lord and Master. (Qur’«n 2:29, 255). The Holy Qur’«n provides the recipes for developing the spiritual strength necessary to struggle against the evil and to establish the Kingdom of God on earth.
Early in his life ‘All«mah Iqb«l realized his duty to prepare the Muslim Ummah for this struggle so that it may be able to attain its rightful place from which it may be able to free all mankind from the evils from which the Ummah had freed itself.
His approach and mission was to create an ideological revolution in the Muslim intelligentsia, as a first step. He talks about revolution extensively in his works. This revolution does not consist of political slogan mongering and destructive activities for solving mundane and transient economic and political problems. His revolution is at the intellectual and philosophical level. It aims at freeing humanity in general and Muslims in particular from the slavery of the pessimistic and fatalist Greek philosophy in the intellectual sphere and from the two mutually contending extremist Western socio-economic philosophies of capitalism and communism. Thus he set upon the task of re-starting and completing the work initiated by previous fighters against evil, like Im«m Ibn Taymiyyah, Im«m Ghaz«li and Mawl«n« Rëmâ. He was convinced that after these freedoms his audience (humanity in general and the Muslim Ummah in particular) would gravitate towards the dynamic Islamic intellectualism and would be close to the middle path of the Islamic socio-economic system, which is closer to human nature than the two extremes of capitalism and communism. With this in view he sent a message to his audience in his later book "Pas Che B«yad Kard Ai Aqw«m-i-Sharq" (So What Should be done O Oriental Nations), which says inter alia
(2) I am raising a new army from the realm of Love
As in the Haram a danger of Intellect's rebellion exists
(3) Think not that Intellect credit and weight has not
The insight of a Mu`min is the climax of Intellect
(Appendix III, No. 30, ‘Addressed to the reader of the book’)
‘All«mah Iqb«l was a very deep thinker and a prolific writer. With these qualities and life-long dedication to this mission he produced 15 books for conveying his message to all who had the ears to listen and a will to work for this cause. These books are listed below in chronological order:
- ‘Ilm al-IqtiÅ«d (The Science of Economics)- In Urdu prose (ca 1901)- It is the first book on Economics in Urdu.
- Islam as an Ethical and Political Ideal. In English prose (1908)- The name is self explanatory. (Delivered as a lecture in 1908 and first printed in 1955)
- The Development of Metaphysics in Persia. In English prose (1908)- It is a contribution to the history of Islamic philosophy.
- Asr«r-i-Khudâ (The Secrets of the Self). In Persian verse (1915)- As the name shows it discusses the philosophy of Khudâ.
- Rumëz-i-Bekhudâ (The Mysteries of Selflessness) In Persian verse (1917)- It discusses the philosophy of pooling the individual's Khudâ into the nation's Khudâ.
- Pay«m-i-Mashriq (The Message of the East). In Persian verse (1923)- It was written in response to "West-Oestliche Dâw«n" of Goethe to present the values of the Eastern (Islamic) culture in contrast with the Western culture.
- B«ng-i-Dar« (The Call of the Marching Bell). In Urdu verse with some Persian (1924)- It covers many fields and many kinds of poetry as will be seen in the translation.
- Zubër-i-`Ajam (The Psalms of Persia). In Persian verse (1927)- Most of it is in ghazals which carry Islamic themes.
- The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam. In English prose (1930). The learned author has tried to meet the general demand of attempting to reconstruct Muslim religious philosophy with due regard to the philosophical traditions of Islam and the more recent developments in various domains of human knowledge. This was his master plan and can be considered as a seed which germinated, grew and blossomed in his poetical works.
- J«vâd N«mah (The Book of Eternity). In Persian verse (1932)- It is an allegory containing the climax of the flight of imagination. It is written on the lines of Mi‘r«j N«mahs (Books of the Celestial Ascension of the Holy Prophet S.A.W. He soars through the celestial world in the company of Maul«na Rëmâ and meets the heroes and heroines of the past who provide him with opinions on some of the problems of the modern age.
- B«l-i-Jibrâl (The Gabriel's Wings). In Urdu verse with some Persian (1933)- This is a treasure of Islamic knowledge and wisdom.
- Pas Che B«yad Kard Ai Aqw«m-i-Sharq (So What Should be Done O Oriental Nations). In Persian verse (1936)- It exhibits the secrets of the destinies of nations.
- Mus«fir (The Wayfarer)- In Persian verse (1936). It deals with his reflections on his trip to Afghanistan
- Zarb-i-Kalâm (The Blow of Moses) In Urdu verse with some Persian (1936)- This is a declaration of war against the modern age.
- Armagh«n-i-Hij«z (The Gift for Hij«z). In verse in separate Persian and Urdu Parts (1938)- Among other things it contains expression of his Love for God, the Holy Prophet S.A.W. and the Muslim Ummah. He wrote it at the time he was preparing for pilgrimage to Makkah-i Mu`azzamah. However, the pilgrimage did not materialize due to fast deterioration of his health and ultimate death in April 1938.
The message of ‘All«mah Iqb«l is primarily addressed to Muslims, because they are the only people in the present day world, one section of whom, i.e. Mu'mins, is endowed with the Divine blessing of fully developed and mature Khudâ, based on complete comprehension of the Holy Qur’«n and the readiness for molding their lives according to it. Except three books ‘All«mah Iqb«l's writings are all in Urdu or Persian verse. The spread of the Muslim Ummah beyond the Urdu and Persian knowing countries makes it necessary to translate them into other languages of the Pakistan-India-Bangladesh region as well as into languages beyond that region. His poetic works have been and are being translated into other languages, which include English and other foreign tongues. However, B«ng-i-Dar« has not been translated into English except five long poems. For that reason I have mustered courage to translate this book. In making this translation I have in view the needs of the persons, (Muslims as well as non-Muslims) who do not know Urdu and Persian but are anxious to know ‘All«mah Iqb«l and his message and to invigorate their intellect and activism through the inspiration derived from him.
Explanatory Note-
1. Khudâ- See Chapter 3, paragraph of the same name.
THE LIFE AND TIMES OF 'ALLÿMAH IQBÿL
Introduction
An individual's personality is determined by his inherent potentialities, his environment and interaction between these two. Understanding these factors is important in the study of a person and his contribution to society. Persons who make important contribution are considerably above the rank and file of the human race. Their distinction lies in the fact that they do not bend to and get molded by their environment. They bring into play their inherent qualities and potentialities as well as the Divinely conferred autonomy and mold their environment or derive only good influences from it instead of being led by it blindly. ‘All«mah Iqb«l was one such person whose personality has to be understood in order to comprehend his thought contained in B«ng-i-Dar« and other books. Just as rain has different influences on different soils, depending upon the latter's potentialities, human beings are also affected differently by the same environment, depending upon their potentialities:
(4) Rain which differs not in the subtlety of its nature
Raises tulips in garden but thorns on soil of saline nature
Sa‘dâ1
THE LIFE AND TIMES OF 'ALLÿMAH IQBÿL
Scope of this Biographical Sketch
Within the constraints of this commentary it is not possible to present an exhaustive discussion of the inherent and acquired qualities of ‘All«mah Iqb«l. Treatises and monographs exist on his life and works which fully deal with this subject. I shall restrict myself in this chapter to a summary of the conspectus of the events of his life and work in sufficient detail to provide the background necessary for understanding his message in B«ng-i-Dar« and other books which have been referred to in explaining this book. Before commencing this account I want to invite reference to the "Preface" in Urdu by ‘All«mah Iqb«l's friend, confidant and a fellow literary man, Sir ‘Abd al-Q«dir, in the Urdu version of B«ng-i-Dar«. It appears in English translation in Chapter 4. This preface deals with the literary activities of ‘All«mah Iqb«l up to 1924. In this chapter I shall fill in the blanks in the above preface and cover the period 1925-38 in adequate detail.
THE LIFE AND TIMES OF 'ALLÿMAH IQBÿL
Influence of his Parents and Family
‘All«mah Iqb«l's origin is traced to a Kashmârâ Brahman family who lived in Kashmâr till about the second half of the 19th. century. His grandfather, Shaikh Rafâq migrated from Kashmir soon after 1857, primarily to escape from the oppression of the new Hindu Dogra rulers of Kashmâr to whom the British had transferred Kashmâr through the Treaty of Amritsar (1846). Shaikh Rafâq settled in the city of Sialkot in Punjab to which many other Kashmârâ families had migrated for the same reason. As a result of this ‘All«mah Iqb«l always remained attached to Kashmâr through the bonds of Islamic love, coupled with his origin. He has frequently expressed concern over the atrocities perpetrated over the Muslims in Kashmâr by its Hindu rulers throughout the period of their rule.
His father, Shaikh Nër Muhammad belonged to the lower middle working class. Though he was neither rich nor much educated he was famous for his honesty, integrity, piety and inclination towards sëfism. The influence of his father was very deep on ‘All«mah Iqb«l. Though the father made him read the Holy Qur’«n reverently every morning he made sure that it was read with full understanding and not just as a ritual. Shaikh Nër Muhammad often instructed ‘All«mah Iqb«l to study the Holy Qur’«n as if it had been revealed to him personally. ‘All«mah Iqb«l reflects this sentiment in several places in his works. Cf.
(5) As long as the Qur’«n does not descend on your inner most self.
R«zâ 2 and the author of Al-Kashsh«f 3 will not unravel its mysteries
His mother, Imam Bâbi, was an equally pious lady. Perhaps her upbringing of ‘All«mah Iqb«l coupled with her midnight supplications for her son went a long way in building up the piety and the strong influence of Islam in him. He has referred to this in Poem 122 "W«lidah Marhëmah Kâ Y«d Main" (In Remembrance of the Blessed Mother ) in "B«ng-i-Dar«".
Thus, ‘All«mah Iqb«l, not only inherited piety and other Islamic values from both parents but, under their patronage , found an environment which was very conducive to the full development of Islamic character and its full blooming early in his youth.
THE LIFE AND TIMES OF 'ALLÿMAH IQBÿL
‘All«mah Iqb«l's Personality
Such a multitude of different events interacting with ‘All«mah's inherently sensitive heart and his fields of education made him a multi-dimensional personality which make it difficult to say what he was. For that reason different people present him in different ways.
He was a jurist by profession but practiced as barrister only intermittently for short periods when pressed by financial needs. He also taught as Professor at the Government and Islamiya Colleges at Lahore for short periods. He had realized that the Muslim Ummah was unique and distinctly different from other Ummahs and geographical nations. So its problems and needs as well as the methods of solving them would also be unique and different from other nations. They can be solved only with the cooperation and efforts of the whole Ummah. Consequently, he devoted his full time to the service of Islam and the Muslim Ummah in India and abroad. He had realized that an ideological revolution in the Muslim Ummah would not be possible without creating a body of the intelligentsia of Muslim youth who would be so conscious and proud of their rich heritage of Islam that they would spare no pains, would face all dangers and make all sacrifices for its revival. So he emancipated the philosophy of Khudâ (for details see Chapter 3.) He endeavored to bring about a psychological revolution which would revive the values of Islam and ultimately create a pan-Islamic society and State, transcending the boundaries of race and color, and would establish a super-national Islamic State with justice and freedom for all. This would be the "Kingdom of God on Earth" for which Christians have only prayed for the last two thousand years and for which the Holy Qur’«n and the Holy Prophet S.A.W , at the last pilgrimage had commissioned the Muslim Ummah. 21
‘All«mah Iqb«l appreciated the great value of the intellectual approach and also felt that efforts were needed at the practical level. His political philosophy is explained in Chapter 3 together with the part he played in the practical politics of the Indian subcontinent and in the establishment of Pakistan.
In common parlance he is mistakenly called a poet. Though eleven out of his fifteen published books are in verse he was a poet only to the extent that he used poetry as a vehicle for his message. See Chapter 4, "Sir ‘Abd al-Qadir's Preface" for ‘All«mah Iqb«l's attitude to poetry and the circumstances in which he adopted poetry for his mission.
The vast variety of subjects covered in his books, though all revolving round Islam, reflect his multi-dimensional genius, and leave one wondering whether he was a poet, a creative thinker, a seer, a reformer, or a political philosopher. In fact he himself wonders about his characterization when he says:
(33) I myself do not know the reality of mine
Very deep is the sea of the thoughts mine
(Appendix III, No. 25.)
As specialists on ‘All«mah Iqb«l have expressed contradictory views on his relative excellence as a poet and a thinker and seer it is best to go to ‘All«mah Iqb«l himself to get the answer. He denounces as well as eulogizes poetry:
In the last verse of Ghazal 75-2 in B«ng-i-Dar« he says:
(34) To the Makhzan's 21 editor somebody should take my message
Nations which are dynamic, have no taste for literature
(Appendix III , No.25)
In the last two verses of the sixth stanza of Poem 99 "Sham‘-o- Sh«‘ir"(The has Candle and the Poet), in the same book, he says;
(35) It been said that poetry is a part of prophecy
Yes, convey to the Millat the glad tidings of the heavenly voice
(36) Awaken the eye with the promise of the Beloved's Sight
Bring the heart to life with the warmth of speech's skill
(Appendix III, No. 25.)
This apparent contradiction is reconciled by the fact that his denunciation of poetry in the first example pertains to conventional poetry, which is often decadent and life negating, addresses itself to the base side of the human nature, is unconcerned with the environment and the historical events taking place therein, and is subversive to human progress by creating an unreal world and producing soporific effects. His target is unmistakably decadent poetry, the poetry of the nations on the downgrade. He did not like "poetry for poetry's sake". As for himself he had to be assiduously persuaded by his friend and confidant, Sir ‘Abd al-Q«dir and his professor , Dr. Thomas Arnold to adopt poetry as a vehicle for his philosophy and reformism. When he adopted poetry for the fulfillment of his mission he combined the perfection of the artist with the zeal of the missionary. His choice fell on poetry because of its greater effectiveness and appeal to the human head and heart than prose. Like other great men of the world ‘All«mah Iqb«l had been ordained by God for the sacred mission of uniting the stray pieces of the Muslim Ummah into a united Millat, imbibed with the sacred desire for the reconstruction of the God's world on Islamic lines to prepare the ground for the establishment of the Islamic State - a mission entrusted to the Muslim Ummah by God and the Holy Prophet S.A.W. at the time of the last pilgrimage . He says:
(37) My scattered songs as poetry you should not consider
As of the secrets of the tavern's inside I am aware
(Appendix III, No. 29.)
(38) Vast difference exists between poetry and me, poetry is only an exuse
I am only pulling the unbridled she camel into the line
(Appendix III, No. 26.)
‘All«mah Iqb«l molded poetry so as to make it the vehicle for Divine message, for revealing Divine secrets to mankind, for expressing his internal inspired feelings in a language which would awaken the sleeping Ummah from their deep torpor and create in them high thinking and freedom of thought. So equipped they could visualize the coming age of the Tawhâd-i-Ins«niyat under pan-Islamism and thus fulfill the Divine trust and accomplish the original mission of the creation of Man which was to be the vicegerent of God on earth (Holy Qur’«n 2:30). He was fully conscious of his mission .
(39) Subtleties of knowledge and learning I know not
Though I have given another new status to poetry
(40) In the midst of the caravan by my pathos and happiness
The pace of the old religious leaders has increased
(Appendix III, No. 33.)
(41) I have disclosed the secrets of qalandarâ
So the school and monastery’s thinking be free 22
(Appendix III, No. 29.)
(42) I have created a new zeal in the hearts
From Lahore to the lands of Bukhara and Samarqand
(Appendix III, No. 32.)
(43) After me people read my poetry, understand it, and say
A self-knowing man has revolutionized the world
(Appendix III, No. 26.)
Thus a serious study of ‘‘Allamah Iqb«l shows that he was much more than a poet. He can be considered as the Islamic revivalist of his age.
I have discussed some important components of ‘All«mah Iqb«l's philosophy in Chapter 3. However, as we are dealing with one of his poetic works in this commentary I shall now endeavor to recapitulate the evolution of his poetry. Regarding kinds of poetry his works include all the popular genres used in Urdu-Persian verse, except qasâdah, viz. ghazal, marthi«, mathnavâ, rub«‘â and qaè‘ah. His poetic career of 38 years from 1900 to 1938 can be divided into four periods. The characteristics of these periods are summarized in the following pages. B«ng-i-Dar« covers the first three of them.
THE LIFE AND TIMES OF 'ALLÿMAH IQBÿL
Period I (Before 1905)
He started poetry at the age of about twenty years, while still at school and continued it all his life. From the very beginning he was a non-believer in the concept of "art for art's sake". As has been stated earlier he practiced poetry as a vehicle for conveying his message to his readers.
His poetry started with ghazals, some of which show classic strain, such as ghazals 50-2 and 50-4 in B«ng-i-Dar«. However, romanticism of Western poetry soon started influencing his poetry. This change was also noticed by D«gh, who was his early teacher and mentor. ‘All«mah Iqb«l started using his ghazals and other poems for expressing his thoughts about politics and other fields. His poetry started being the vehicle of his thoughts very early. In the political field his main concern was the political, intellectual and cultural independence of India. He firmly believed in the development of at least working relationship between Hindus and Muslims which were the two major nations in India. Educational and economic emancipation of Muslims was a pre-requisite for bringing them at par with Hindus in these fields, so that the amity could be on honorable terms. ‘All«mah Iqb«l used his genius for bringing home to Muslims their potential for material and spiritual advancement, which alone could provide a reasonable stage for Hindu-Muslim amity with honor. He endeavored to convince Muslims that Islam required advancement in material along with spiritual fields. In his efforts to bring about Hindu-Muslim amity he was bold enough to point out the shortcomings of both groups which were obstructing such amity. He also tried to create patriotism as a means of achieving the same end. Poems No. 16, 23, 39, 42 and 43 are some of the poems in B«ng-i-Dar« aimed at this.
For effective use of poetry for conveying his political, philosophical, religious and mystic thoughts he had the rare gift of molding mundane objects and events for producing the desired effects. Almost every poem of the first part of B«ng-i-Dar«, up to No. 50-13 bear witness to this.
His early poems are classical ghazals in the style of Mâr, Gh«lib and D«gh. After making the change mentioned earlier he also wrote some topical poems which are philosophical or political in the style of some famous English poets, such as Emerson, Tennyson etc. He also wrote poems for children which appear in the beginning of the first part of B«ng-i-Dar«. Some of them are too advanced in thought for children to comprehend, such as No. 12 "Parinday Kee Fary«d" (The Bird's Complaint). Even at that early stage many poems contain some elements of Khudâ, such as No. 25 "Ins«n Aur Bazm-i-Qudrat" (Man and Nature's Assembly). The poetry of that age not only contains the rudiments of the pillars of his philosophy such as Khudâ , dynamism, and pan-Islamism his merit lies in the fact that he has worked out his themes from mundane objects and events.
THE LIFE AND TIMES OF 'ALLÿMAH IQBÿL
Period II (1905-08)
This was a short period in ‘All«mah Iqb«l's career in which he was intensely preoccupied with his education. For this reason there is very little poetic work during it. His higher education was a serious preparation for his life-long struggle against anti-Islamic and anti-Muslim forces all over the world. This preparation included, but was not restricted to, formal schooling and was spread over the entire expanse of observation of the whole Western world, with respect to their thoughts as well as deeds. It is suggested that his study of Persian poetry, particularly the mystic one in connection with his Ph.D. dissertation indicated that poetry to teach asceticism, monasticism, compromise with poverty and fatalism. These trends were obviously contrary to the needs of the Muslim Ummah if it aspired to regain its former position of being the leaders of the world in intellectualism and dynamism.
While in the pre-1905 period his attention was focused on India and Indian Muslims the period under review saw the expansion of his vision's orbit to the whole world and its problems vis-à-vis Muslims and Islam. Very soon he realized that the basic problems of Muslims all over the world were unique and similar and their solution required the coordinated efforts of the entire Muslim world.
In the above circumstances it is natural that this period's poetry should have the following characteristics:
1. He noticed at first hand the virtues of nationalism and its organization in Europe. This enhanced his own patriotism, both in quality and intensity. When passing through the relics of Islamic civilization on his way to Europe he was greatly moved towards realizing the loss suffered by Muslims as well as by humanity at large by the decay and collapse of Islamic civilization in Sicily, North Africa and Spain. Poems 73 and 74 in B«ng-i-Dar« bear witness to this.
2. Though ‘All«mah Iqb«l was impressed by the science and technology of the West and the material prosperity they brought he could not escape being influenced by its moral, ethical, and spiritual decadence. Reflections of this abound throughout his poetry during the rest of his life.
3. To ‘All«mah Iqb«l's mind decadence of the West's ethical values was most pronounced in their political, economic and social norms. Exploitation of the economic resources and self respect of the conquered nations outside Europe and especially in the Muslim world greatly wounded his heart. The scar of this wound remained with him all his life and was prominently expressed by him in his works.
4. In the spiritual spheres the conflict between ‘Aql and Dil became more vivid in his mind than ever before. Though the rudiments of this conflict existed in the first period (see Poem 15 "‘Aql O Dil" in B«ng-i-Dar«) they became matured and perfected during this period. He now realized that though ‘Aql had an important role to play in human affairs Dil or Wajd«n had more important roles than ‘Aql because of its importance in creating a value system based on justice and fair play, which is what makes a man and a nation worthy of its name. See Poem 55 "Tulab«-i-Aligarh Ke N«m" (Addressed to the Aligarh Students) and Poem 73 "‘Abd al-Q«dir Kay N«m" (addressed to ‘Abd al-Qadir) in B«ng-i-Dar«.
5. Life is not just earning one's livelihood and making material progress. It is continuous dynamism and struggle in the cause of God and Truth and a longing and effort to do one's best in these fields.
6. The concept of Khudâ is initiated in these poems and also there are references to Bekhudâ.
7. The concept of nationhood in Islam is not based on geographic boundaries but on ideology. In this respect the nation of Islam or Muslim Ummah is super-national.
THE LIFE AND TIMES OF 'ALLÿMAH IQBÿL
Period III (1908-30)
This is a long period of more than twenty years and is the one of the highest degree of productivity in the life of ‘All«mah Iqb«l. By 1908 he had acquired all the background knowledge he needed and had achieved maturity of thought. During this period he produced the greatest amount of prose and poetic literature which is a source of pride to Islam and Muslims on account of its quality. It is also an invaluable wealth for Urdu and Persian literature. It is contained in all his books, including B«ng-i-Dar«. This literature covers all aspects of the material as well as spiritual worlds. In the material world he presents detailed and heart touching descriptions of the blessings of Islam and Muslims to all mankind; shows the causes of decadence of the Muslim world and presents a pathetic picture of its present condition. However, he does not leave the Muslim Ummah in frustration and despair. On the other hand he boosts their morale in very eloquent and reassuring language. This effort does not consist of empty words and esoteric imaginations of a literary genius but constitutes a beam of hope in the darkness of the present day world. He presents concrete remedies for correcting the maladies of the Muslim world and for working towards the goal of taking the Muslim world from the present day doldrums to its former place of pride where it would be able to perform the functions of the vicegerent of God for which it was originally created. Greater parts of B«ng-i-Dar«, B«l-i-Jibrâl, Zarb-i-Kalâm, Armagh«n-i-£ij«z, Pay«m-i-Mashriq, Pas Che B«yad Kard Ay Aqw«m-i-Sharq, Zubër-i-‘Ajam and The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam deal with this aspect of the Ummah. Spiritual subjects are included in the above books also but are exhaustively dealt with in the more philosophical treatises of Asr«r-i-Khudâ, Rumëz-i-Bekhudâ, Gulshan-i-R«z Jadâd and Javâd N«mah. It is obvious that the Muslim Ummah needs acquisition of both kinds of knowledge, material as well as spiritual to enable it to perform its appointed duties.
Poem 145 "Tulë-i-Isl«m" which is the last long poem in B«ng-i-Dar«, is full of the high hopes of Islamic renaissance. This hope was created in him by the successes of Mustafa Kam«l P«sha in Turkey in ousting the Allied forces from Constantinople and creating a solid defense for Turkey. To ‘All«mah Iqb«l this brought the first glimpse of the message of Islamic renaissance. This sentiment also found expression in the poem "Masjid-i-Qurtub«" in B«l-i-Jibrâl which was written in 1933 and published in the above book in 1935.
His Love for God, the Holy Prophet S.A.W., and the Holy Land of Hij«z also reached its peak during this period and is extensively reflected in the poems of this period listed above.
The shortcomings and defects of the secular nationalism of the West are fully exposed and the concept of the ideological Islamic nationhood and Islamic State are presented.
THE LIFE AND TIMES OF 'ALLÿMAH IQBÿL
Period IV (1930-38)
In this and the last period of his literary career ‘All«mah Iqb«l did not encounter any important external event. In the peace of mind and emotions so acquired he reverted to esoteric and spiritual subjects. This gave him the opportunity of explaining the theory of Khudâ and Bekhudâ as well as the components of Khudâ, the most important of which is the elegance of man as the vicegerent of God. The book B«l-i-Jibrâl which is the first book of this period is replete with the message of Khudâ. The following verses are cited as a small sample.
(44) Stars are shuddering at the rise of the earthly man
Lest this meteorite may not become a full moon
(45) Khudâ is the ocean of which there is no shore
If you consider it a stream there is no remedy
(46) This message is left with me by the morning breeze
That monarchy is the status of the knowers of Khudâ
(47) Search for Providence O Imprudent one, it is veiled in Khudâ
This is the only sane advice of the adviser for you
(48) When Love teaches rules of self cognizance
Monarchy's secrets are revealed to slaves
The second component of Khudâ is the superiority of Love over Intellect which receives its due share of representation:
(49) By a single leap of Love everything was settled
I had considered the physical universe as limitless
He has also written on political topics in this period out of which the more famous poems in B«l-i-Jibrâl are "Farm«n-i-Khud«" (The Edict of God) and "Lenin Khuda Kay Huzër Main" (Lenin in Audience with God). The former poem concerns communism which we shall discuss in Chapter 3. The latter poem is a critique of European civilization in the words of Lenin, which leads to the conclusion that the communism of Europe with its atheism was the product of the short sighted attitude of the Church and the capitalist society.
THE LIFE AND TIMES OF 'ALLÿMAH IQBÿL
Conclusion
Thus we see that ‘All«mah Iqb«l was not molded by his environment by completely accepting its evils and virtues together. On the contrary he distinguished between the good and the evil in whatever he experienced in life, selected the good and rejected the evil. He also warned the Muslim Ummah and all mankind of the good and evil in the present day world and society. He taught Muslims how to acquire virtues and fight evil. In this he followed the path of his predecessors by adopting their dynamism and effort to reform the intelligentsia. In this respect he derived most inspiration from Maulan« Rëmâ and he acknowledges this at many places in his works. Cf.
(50) Like Rëmâ I made the adh«n to prayer in the Haram
I have learnt the secrets of life from him
(51) A fighter against mischief in the olden days was he
A fighter against mischief in the present days am I!
(Appendix III, No. 33)
Though the conditions prevailing in the present world and their influence on the Muslim world and society were very disappointing and pained him very much he did not restrict himself to relating only the negative aspect. He also infused the spirit of the hope of improvement and progress in Muslims and gave the recipe for the same.
THE LIFE AND TIMES OF 'ALLÿMAH IQBÿL
Explanatory Notes
1. Sa‘dâ- See Appendix I, No. 66.
2. R«zâ- See Appendix I, No. 64.
3. Kashsh«f- See Appendix I, No. 81.
4. The celebrities referred to in Notes 2 and 3 above, i.e. Im«m Fakhr al-Dân Muhammad Zakariya R«zâ and Abu al-Q«sim Mahmëd Zamakhsharâ of Khw«rism respectively are two prominent exegesists of the Holy Qur’«n. The exegesis written by Im«m R«zâ, titled, Tafsâr-i-Kabâr is very comprehensive and strong in interpretation from sufi or spiritual perspective. Similarly the exegesis written by Zamakhsharâ known as Al-Kashsh«f is very full in explanations and use of idioms. It takes a decidedly rational and ethical view of the doctrines. Numerous exegeses written later are based on these two books.
5. Mâr £asan- See Appendix I, No. 55.
6. Arnold- See Appendix I, No. 11.
7. D«gh- See Appendix I, No. 19.
8. Nicholson- See Appendix I, No. 61.
9. Waédat al-Wujëd- See Chapter 3, paragraph "Controversy of Waédat al- Wujëd vs . Waédat al-Shuhëd."
10. Mujaddid Alf Th«nâ- See Appendix I, No. 57.
11. Waédat al-Shuhëd- See Chapter 3, paragraph "Controversy of Waédat al- Wujëd vs. Waédat-al-Shuhëd.
12. Bergson- See Appendix I, No. 16.
13. Ibn al-‘Arabâ- See Appendix I, No. 40.
14. Mussolini- See Appendix I, No. 58.
15. ñ«riq- See Appendix I, No. 74.
16. Miguil Asin Palacios- He was a Spanish orientalist who became well known for his book titled, Eschatologia Musulamana en la Divine Comedy (The Muslim Eschatology in "Divine Comedy"). This book demonstrated the influence of Muslim Mi‘r«j literature on Dante's Divine Comedy.
17. £akâm San«’â- See Appendix I, No. 70.
18. Sulè«n Maémëd of Ghaznâ- See Appendix I, No. 34.
19. Im«m Husain R.A.- See Appendix I, No. 39.
20. Ummah See Appendix IV.
21. Makhzan- This was an Urdu magazine of Lahore, during ‘All«mah Iqb«l’s time, edited and managed by Sir ‘Abd al-Q«dir.
22. In the works of' ‘All«mah Iqb«l " freedom of thought " means removing the un-Islamic (Greek, Zoroastrian, Christian etc.) thoughts and influences from Islamic thought.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF ‘ALLÿMAH IQBÿL: SOURCES AND EXPRESSION
IN
BÿNG-I-DARÿ
Introduction
A brief review of ‘All«mah Iqb«l's philosophy is necessary to understand his views on the subjects included in B«ng-i-Dar«. As a preliminary step it must be kept in mind that the history of philosophy does not show the concept of any philosopher with a completely original thought. All scholarship and knowledge is a continuously evolving process, which is considered to be the joint heritage of humanity on whom it is bestowed by God in the form of Divine revelations through His prophets, and spiritual leaders and, as intellect to other wise men. ‘All«mah Iqb«l is no exception to this. He also benefited from various sources in evolving and perfecting his thought. A review of these sources is necessary.
Two classes of philosophers have been recognized, viz. harmonizing and creative philosophers. The former establish harmony and relationship between the philosophies of their predecessors and reconcile their thoughts with those of contemporary philosophers. The latter group consists of philosophers who create their own philosophical thought about life and the universe. Western philosophy, which is based on the Greek philosophy, is now accepted as a chain of philosophical thought whose first link is Plato and the last is Hegel1 . ‘All«mah Iqb«l has the distinction of producing the first partially organized philosophical system after Hegel. His system is harmonizing as well as creative. It is harmonizing in the sense that after critically examining the philosophical thoughts of his predecessors he established harmony between the thinking of the ancient and the modern Western philosophers. It is creative in the sense that after critical examination of his predecessors' philosophies he created his own philosophy which had a new dimension on account of being based on the Qur’«nic philosophy with emphasis on Khudâ and dynamism. It covers the Truth, the Universe, spiritual realities the Fard-i-K«miL (the Perfect Man) and Fard-i-Musaddiqah (the Proven Truthful Person). These components of his philosophy have resulted from his own Islamic background in combination with those components of other philosophies which were in harmony with the Holy Qur’«n and the Hadâth literature. After understanding these preliminary matters we are in a position to review the sources and the structure of his philosophy as exhibited in 'B«ng-i-Dar«.’
THE PHILOSOPHY OF ‘ALLÿMAH IQBÿL: SOURCES AND EXPRESSION
IN
BÿNG-I-DARÿ
SECTION I
SOURCES OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF
‘ALLÿMAH IQBÿL
These sources can be outlined as follows:
1. Ancient philosophers and mystics )
2. Muslim philosophers and sëfâs ) External sources
3. Original Islamic literature )
4. Modern Western literature )
5. Nightly Tahajjud prayers and ) meditations, early dawn prayers, ) Internal sources supplications to God for guidance )
(1) Ancient Philosophers and Mystics
This is the period ending with the advent of Islam in the seventh century. The following four philosophies have existed during this period:
1. The Greek philosophy (6th. to 4th. centuries BC).
2. The Persian or Zoroastrian philosophy (7th century BC till the Muslim conquest of Ir«n in the middle of the 7th century C.E ). Its originator was Zoroaster.
3. The Chinese philosophy (5th. to 4th. centuries B.C.). The most famous philosopher or mystic of this philosophy was Confucius.
4. The Hindu philosophy, which started formally with the Vedas (ca. 500 B.C.) though the Aryans had arrived in India in the 3rd. Millennium B.C.
The Greek philosophy greatly influenced the Christian as well as the early Muslim thought. Its influence on the Christian thought was inevitable and direct because Greece had given protection and nurture to the early Christian saints and propagators of religion. Another reason was the unavailability of the original sermons and revelations of Sayyidina ¥s« (A.S) during the first two centuries or so of the Christian era. Its influence on the Muslim thought was due to the proximity of Greece to the Arabian Peninsula and indirectly due to the books of Christian and Jewish scholars which were based primarily on the remnants of the original Bible in the memory of the Christians on which the Greek philosophy had been super-imposed. The Persian, or Zoroastrian, philosophy influenced only the Ir«nian Muslim thinkers and that too only marginally. Similarly, there was only very slight influence of Hindu philosophy on the Muslim thinkers of the Indian subcontinent. In fact Islam had a great influence on Hindu thought, particularly in the 11th. to 14th. centuries. The Chinese philosophy had the least influence, if any.
For these reasons ‘All«mah Iqb«l concentrated on the Greek and Persian philosophies only. Another important reason was to make an effort to counteract the misleading effects of these philosophies on Muslim thought as stated by ‘All«mah Iqb«l himself:
(52) I have disclosed the secrets of qalandar
So the seminary's and monastery's thinking be free
(Appendix III, No. 25)
As we have mentioned in Chapter 2 and later in this chapter the philosophies of "Idealism" and "Realism" emanated from Greece and were the rudiments of "Pantheism" or Waédat al-Wujëd and atheism respectively of later times. Islamic thought is the middle course between these two extremes. It neither denies the reality of the existence of Matter or the Universe nor elevates it to elegance of eternity and deification. According to the Holy Qur’«n there is only one Entity i.e. God which is Eternal in its origin as well as the end and is the Creator, Organizer, Lord and Administrator of the Universe, both material and spiritual. The Holy Qur’«n states that:
God is the Creator of the Universe (2:29, 117; 6:73; 29:19-20);
This creation is not accidental or for sport (21:16-17);
This creation is in just proportions (39:5); and
This creation is not only purposeful but also for just ends (15:85; 16:3; 45:22; 46:3 and 51:56-58);
After the creation of the Universe God did not abdicate His authority and did not retire but continues to be in full command of His entire creation (2:255; 9:129;23:86-89; 40:15).
Some eminent leaders of the Greek thought are Parmenides (ca. 504-450 B.C.), Xenophenes (6th. century B.C.), Socrates (ca. 470-399 B.C.) and Plato (ca. 428-ca. 348 B.C.). As stated above Plato harmonized Greek philosophy and is considered to be the link between the Greek and the modern Western philosophers. Consequently, ‘All«mah Iqb«l concentrated his attention on Plato in preparing his critique of the Greek thought.
Both components of the Greek philosophy, viz. "Idealism" and "Realism" are in conflict with the Islamic thought. From purely pragmatic point of view also both are detrimental to the human race. "Idealism" does not believe in the Universe being real which denies all the creative potentiality of God as well as His Sovereignty. Human efforts in our affairs would be of no use because there is no guiding force ruling over the Universe which could make our efforts succeed or listen to our prayers. As stated earlier in this chapter and in Chapter 2 this concept is the rudiment of the concept of Waédat al-Wujëd from which the concepts of Determinism and Fatalism originated. Fatalism strikes at the very roots of human effort and cuts off nourishment from it by depriving man of the good hope from the Mercy and Benevolence of God. This is in direct opposition to the Holy Qur’«n, which clearly endows Man with free will, albeit limited, and Mercy and Benevolence from God. Fatalism not only degrades Man to a lifeless toy but also denies God His Eternal Sovereignty over the Universe and its affairs, including the affairs of Man. Islam's approach in this matter is the golden mean between the extremes of immutable Fatalism and the chaotic unbridled free will of the atheist. Man and his actions are certainly under the control of the Omniscient and Omni-potent God's Will. However, this Will is neither capricious nor immutable. Human effort, coupled with prayers and supplications to God can change the Will, (The Holy Qur’«n 10:99-100, notes 1480-1481 in Appendix III, No. 8; 30:5, note 3509 in Appendix III, No. 8; 81:27-29, note 5996 in Appendix III, No. 8; 82:6-7, note 6004 of Appendix III, No. 8). These doctrines led to the Muslim Ummah losing dynamism, the deleterious effects of which are clearly stated by Najla (1963) in the following citation:
"The decline of the internal creative power and expeditionary zeal of the Arab civilization was more devastating than the misfortunes and catastrophes that befell it from outside. The ardent desire for intellectual inquiry and the pride of performance which were characteristic of the early times were throttled by the strong pressure of religious dogmas and centralization. Freedom of thought was banished and conservatism reigned supreme. Unbridled search for Truth was branded as atheism and irreligiosity. The fearless and bold people of the earlier times were relegated to obscurity. The brain trust engaged itself in preparing the explanations and abstracts of well known subjects instead of using their intellect in discovering new avenues of knowledge."
(Appendix III, No. 45, cited in Appendix III, No. 35)
Thus Plato's philosophy of "Idealism", when adopted by Muslim thinkers created the concept of the ineptness of the human race to control its destiny which was considered to be pre-determined by the only Existing Being in the form of immutable destiny or Fate. With this belief human effort became redundant and useless. This led to the abandonment of dynamism which had made the Muslims "rulers of the moon and the Pleides" and reduced them to be Fatalists and stoics with monastic temperament. Centuries of this static life of the Muslim Ummah led to their declining preparedness which resulted in the destruction of the Khil«fah, the loss of Bukhara, Samarqand and Spain, the fall of the Mughal Empire in the Indian subcontinent, the collapse of the Uthmaniyah Khil«fah and of all the Muslim powers in North Africa and South East Asia. This degeneration continued till, by the time of ‘All«mah Iqb«l, the Muslim Ummah had been reduced to a mere existence which was entirely and completely at the mercy of the Western Powers. The painful reality is that the condition of the Muslim world has continued to be increasingly hopeless till now.
Under these conditions ‘All«mah Iqb«l warned the Muslims in his book, Asr«r-i-Khëdâ to refrain from Plato's philosophy (Appendix III, No. 22, in Section VII ).
(2) Muslim Philosophers and Sëfâs
‘All«mah Iqb«l studied, pondered over, evaluated and accepted or rejected, after critical examination, the works of almost all Muslim scholars of the philosopher as well as sëfâ class. His criteria for acceptance were concordance with the Holy Qur'«n and Hadâth literature and the influence of the thoughts on the welfare of the Muslim Ummah. Quddësâ (1970) has recorded detailed biographies of 32 such eminent personalities who influenced ‘All«mah Iqb«l or earned his appreciation and confidence. (Appendix III, No. 49). Ahmad (1987) has described the influence of three additional Muslim thinkers whose works influenced the ‘All«mah. These are Zakariy« al-R«zâ, Abë ‘Ali Sâna and Jam«l al-Dân Afgh«nâ (Appendix III, No 5). In addition, he also studied a large number of Persian and Urdu mystical poets and benefited from their works. Their biographies and influence on ‘All«mah Iqb«l are described by Ri«z (1977) (Appendix III, No. 51). Many of these philosophers, sëfâs and poets have been referred to in Appendix I of this commentary, which gives their short biographies and summarizes their influence on ‘All«mah Iqb«l. He has himself expressed his admiration for a number of eminent Muslim philosophers, sëfâs and poets. I have subjectively selected nine such personalities for inclusion here. I give below short accounts of their influence in chronological order:
1.ñaifër Ibn al-‘¥s« B«yazâd Bisè«mâ R.A.(777-874)- See Appendix I, No. 14. He is one of the most favorite sëfâs of ‘All«mah Iqb«l for whom he had very deep love and reverence. This was based on two attributes of Bist«mâ R.A., viz. faqr and Love of God. The latter attribute is also one of the prime movers of ‘All«mah Iqb«l's works the examples of which abound in all his works. I have commented on this subject at appropriate places in the commentary and again in this chapter under the topic "‘Aql O Dil". I give here one example of each:
Addressing God he says:
(53) The grandeur of Sanjar and Salâm is the manifestation of thy Majesty
The faqr of Junaid and B«yazâd is Thy unveiled Beauty
(Appendix III, No. 29)
Talking of audience with the Holy Prophet (S.A.W). he says:
(54) Of the highest reverence under the sky more gracious than ‘Arsh is this place
Junaid and B«yazâd approach in a trance at this place
(Appendix III, No. 33)
2. Junaid Baghd«dâ R.A. (ca. 820-910)- See Appendix I, No. 47). He is a well known Sëfâ and is ranked among the highest by very eminent sëfâs. ‘All«mah Iqb«l had very great reverence and love for him. His greatest contribution to the service of Islam was exposing of the ineptness of the Greek philosophy in solving Man's material as well as spiritual problems. Probably he is the first Muslim thinker who tried to free Islamic thought from the Greek thought. He is cited as saying, "Only that man can find the path of tasawwuf who has the Holy Our'«n in his right hand and the Hadâth of the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.) in his left, so that with the light of these two torches he can protect himself from doubt as well as bid‘ah ". ‘All«mah Iqb«l learnt this important lesson from him, of course in addition to others. He has often cited him in his works as having reached the climax of Faqr.
(55) The Grandeur of Sanjar and Salim manifestation of Thy Majesty is
The Faqr of Junaid and Bayazid Thy unveiled Beauty is
(56) I no longer see in the schools of the Haram
Junaid's heart and the insight of Ghaz«lâ and R«zâ
(Appendix III, No. 33)
3. ‘Ali Bin Uthm«n al-Hujwârâ, D«t« Ganj Bakhsh R.A. (1088-1111)- See Appendix I, No. 8. He is one of the favorite Sëfâs of ‘All«mah Iqb«l who had high reverence for him which is shown by his frequent visits to the saint's mausoleum in Lahore. The prominent feature of his tasawwuf also was the liberation of Islamic thought from the impurities of Greek and Persian mysticism. ‘All«mah Iqb«l benefited from him in this respect also.
4. Im«m ‘Abd £«mid al-Ghazali«lâ R.A. (1058-1111)- See Appendix I, No. 33.
He is considered to be one of the greatest thinkers of the world. Though he obtained the best education available in his time he found it futile in knowing the Truth. The biographies of several sëfâs preceding him opened his heart to the Truth. Then he realized that "I saw that what is most peculiar to them (the Sëfâs) cannot be learned from books, but can only be reached by immediate experience, ecstasy and inward information". This perfected his knowledge of the Truth.
Im«m Ghaz«lâ was a very deep thinker and prolific writer. His contribution to human knowledge is two fold. First through his books he conveyed the Greek thought and Islam's modification of it. Later these books were translated into Latin and other European and Asian languages. Secondly his works influenced several eminent Muslim thinkers to the important concepts of Islam. His influence reached ‘All«mah Iqb«l through his writings and those of his successors whom he had influenced. As pointed out in his biography in Appendix I, in a way, Im«m Ghaz«lâ was a pioneer in the task of reforming the Muslim society in different periods of history. His example was a guiding light to Mawl«n« Rëmâ and ‘All«mah Iqb«l and others.
5. Abu al- Majdëd Ibn al- ÿdam £akâm San«’â (ca. 1080-1150)- See Appendix I, No. 70. ‘All«mah Iqb«l was impressed by the sincere Love for God depicted by Hakâm San«â in his writings. The status of Hakâm San«â in this respect can be judged from the following verse of Mawl«n« Rëmâ.
(57) ‘Aèè«r was the spirit and the two eyes were San«â
I rank in this world after ‘Aèè«r and San«â
Both Mawl«n« Rëmâ and ‘All«mah Iqb«l had great reverence for Hakâm San«â. I have given several examples of ‘All«mah Iqb«l's reverence for Hakâm San«â in Chapter 2 under the paragraph "Visit to Afgh«nist«n: At the Tomb of Hakâm San«â". All these poems are worth reading but I refrain from reproducing them for brevity. However, I give the following two verses which prove my assertion. Praying to God he says:
(58) The fervor of Rëmâ, the pathos of Khusro, grant me
The truth and selflessness of San«â grant me
(59) I have settled for Thy Service such that
I shall not take if Thou the whole world, grant me
(Appendix III, No. 33)
6. Mawl«n« Jal«l al-Dân Rëmâ (1207-73)- See Appendix I, No. 65. He is one of the most eminent sëfâs, Islamic thinkers and Islamic poets. His biography summarized in Appendix I shows the thought and work of Mawl«n« Rëmâ and the background in which these were developed. His influence on ‘All«mah Iqb«l has also been given there. It can be safely said that Mawl«n« Rëmâ’s influence on ‘All«mah Iqb«l was the greatest of all influences. ‘All«mah Iqb«l has accepted Mawl«n« Rëmâ as his preceptor at many places in his works. In his book Javid N«mah Mawl«n« Rëmâ is his companion, guide and preceptor throughout the celestial journey. The following verses beautifully summarize the influence:
(60) Like Rëmâ I made the ÿdh«n in the Haram
From him I have learnt the secrets of life
(61) In the mischievous period of the past was he
In the mischievous period of the present am I
(Appendix III, No. 33).
7.‘Abd al-Karâm al- Jâlâ (d. 1406)- See Appendix I, No. 46. ‘All«mah Iqb«l's respect for al-Jâlâ comes from his concepts of the "Perfect Man" and "Time" as well as being the originator of the dialectical system of reasoning instead of Hegel to whom it is attributed by the Western scholars.
8. Mawl«n« Abd al-Rahm«n J«mâ R.A. (1414-93)- See Appendix I, No. 45. Mawl«n« J«mâ’s extreme Love for God and the Holy Prophet S.A.W. endeared him to ‘All«mah Iqb«l very much. He has expressed his love and reverence for J«mâ in his Persian works, some examples of which are given below:
(62) Sometimes I read the verses of Ir«qâ
Sometimes afire with J«mâ's fire am I
(63) Though I know not the music of Arabia
Participating in the camel driver's music am I
(Appendix III, No. 33)
(64) I perceive signs of immaturity in logic
Its argument is the indication of failure
(65) To me a verse of Rëmâ or J«mâ
The opener of closed doors is
(Appendix III, No. 33)
(66) By the style of Mullah J«mâ enamored am I
By his verse and prose made mature am I
(Appendix III, No. 22)
9. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindâ Mujaddid Alf-i-Th«nâ (1564-1624)- See Appendix I, No. 57. The strongest pillars of Mujaddid's thought and effort were removal of un-Islamic and anti-Islamic practices at the Mughal court and purification of tasawwuf by elimination of un-Islamic ideologies and making it concordant with the Islamic Sharâ‘ah. These were also the aims and objectives of ‘All«mah Iqb«l. These attributes of Mujaddid earned ‘All«mah Iqb«l’s reverence and love for him. He says:
(67) Since three hundred years India's taverns have been closed
It would be appropriate if your favors are now open to all
(Appendix III, No. 29)
In the poem titled "Punj«b Kay Pârz«don Kay N«m" (Addressed to the descendants of the Holy Men of Punjab) in B«l-i-Jibrâl he pays high tributes to Mujaddid, a sample of which is given below:
(68) I presented myself at the mausoleum of Mujaddid
That dust which is the rising place of lights under the sky
(69) The particles of this dust put the stars to shame
That knower of Divine secrets rests in this dust
(70) He refused to submit himself to Jah«ngâr
By the warmth of his breath is the warmth of free men
(71) That guardian of the Millat's wealth in India
Informed by God at the proper times who was
(Appendix III, No. 29)
(3) Original Islamic Literature
The Holy Qur'«n is the one single book which exerted the greatest influence over ‘All«mah Iqb«l's thought and way of life. I have shown in Chapter 2 that his study of the Holy Qur'«n was not ritualistic or perfunctory and was not performed merely as a "virtuous act". His heart-felt belief in the Holy Qur'«n being the word of God changed his heart and its ability to accept the Holy Qur'«n's Truth to the extent that he considered its recital and study as tantamount to receiving its message directly from God without a veil :
(72) As long as the Qur'«n is not revealed to your heart
R«zâ or, the author of Al-Kashsh«f will not unravel its mysteries
(Appendix III, No. 29)
He offers the following advice for studying the Holy Qur'«n most effectively i.e. to understand it yourself and not through others:
(73) A captive of the mullah and the sëfâ you are
Not deriving direct life from the Qur'«n you are
(74) You have nothing to do with its verses
Except to die easily with Y«sân's verses
(75) Put a mirror from the Qur'«n before you
From yourself escape when you feel change
(76) Establish a balance for yourself
Mount the upcoming Judgment Day yourself
(Appendix III, No. 33)
He had reached the stage of ‘Irf«n at which he cried out "The insight of a Mu’min is the climax of Intellect" (Appendix III, No. 30). And filled with ecstasy he expresses his Love and reverence for God in one long stanza of the poem titled, "Zawq O Shawq" (The Longing and Its Joy) of which the following verses are the essence:
(77) Both the terrestrial and celestial worlds get illumination from Manifestation Thine!
The speck of sand is endowed with the sun's brilliance by Magnificence of Thine!
(78) The grandeur of Sanjar and Salâm is the Manifestation of Majesty Thine
The faqr of Junaid and B«yazâd is the unveiled Beauty Thine
Considered in this background it is easily understandable that ‘All«mah Iqb«l considered the Holy Qur'«n to be the only existing authentic fountainhead of the Truth. For this reason he used the Holy Qur’«n as the criterion for testing the veracity of all other philosophies and claims of sëfâs emerging from human Intellect and spiritual experiences. This view of his about the Holy Qur'«n is testified by the following hemstitch:
(79) The Beloved's entire speech is the Qur’«n that I have
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan
The method of the study of Holy Qur'«n adopted by ‘All«mah Iqb«l manifested the secrets of spiritual universe to his heart. This revelation led him to the belief that a Mu’mins life style is really an exegesis of the Holy Qur’«n. He says:
(80) Sainthood, sovereignty, the universality of material knowledge
Merely by the unraveling of the secrets of Faith are created!
(Appendix III, No. 25)
(81) This secret is not known to any one that the Mu’min
Appears to be the reader but really the Qur'«n itself is
(Appendix III, No. 32)
The insight into the Holy Qur’«n acquired by him infused in him the unshakable loyalty to its message and to the Muslim Ummah which is the custodian of that message. He has invoked the curse of God on himself if his philosophy or poetry has even one thought outside the Holy Qur’«n. He says:
(82) If my heart a mirror with no worth is
In my word if anything except the Qur'«n is
(83) O Thou who brightens the morning of the ages gone by and speeding
Whose eye the innermost recesses of our hearts is penetrating
(84) Dry up the wine in grapes mine
Throw poison in my pure wine
(85) Wretched and ignominious on the Judgment Day make me
Deprive me of kissing the feet (of the Holy Prophet)
This is a peremptory argument for accepting ‘All«mah Iqb«l’s works as exegesis of the Holy Qur'«n just as the Mathnavâ of Mawl«n« Rëmâ is accepted as "The Holy Qur'«n in the Persian language".
(4) Modern Western Literature
‘All«mah Iqb«l had done extensive and intensive study of the Western literature as he had done of the ancient and Islamic learning. He has shown appreciation for several renowned Western scholars and has admitted being influenced by some of them. The evidence and the extent of his benefiting from Western knowledge is available in his own works. He says:
"I admit that I have benefited from Hegel, Goethe, Mirza Gh«lib, ‘Abd al-Q«dir Bedil and Wordsworth. Hegel and Goethe have guided me in penetrating the internal truth of things. Bedil and Gh«lib taught me how to keep the spirit of the East alive in my feelings and their expression in spite of absorbing the values of Western poetry, and Wordsworth helped me in protecting me from materialism during my educational days".
( Iftikhar Ahmad Siddiqui (1923). (Translator) Maq«l«t-i-Iqb«l: Bazm-i-Iqb«l, Lahore, Pakistan, p. 105, cited in Appendix III, No. 35).
(86) I have drawn wine from the tavern of the West
I have purchased a headache for myself
(87) I have mingled with the good men of the West
I have less compassionate day than that not seen
(Shaikh Ataullah (1964). Iqb«l N«mah. Published by Shaikh Muhammad Ashraf, Vol. 1, p. 4 cited in Appendix III, No.35)
These two quotations speak volumes about ‘All«mah Iqb«l's evaluation of Western thought. In these and many other places he has shown appreciation of the merits of selected Western intellectuals and thinkers. However, benefiting from Western thinkers appears anomalous when considered in the background of the opinions he has expressed of the Western society and its ways. Consideration of the following points will clear this anomaly.
1. ‘All«mah Iqb«l's criticism of the West is that of its governments and their institutions. Their literature and thought are different. These are a part of the heritage of mankind and should be studied and evaluated by all seekers of knowledge. They should be accepted or rejected depending on their contents and quality.
2. Reading and even appreciation of some intellectual's work does not amount to accepting his thought.
3. The study of Western thought was a continuation of his efforts to evaluate non-Islamic literature with the intention of testing its veracity by comparing it with the revealed literature of Islam, which was always the criterion for ‘All«mah Iqb«l as stated earlier. His intention was to determine which of the Western learning and its methodology had enabled Mankind to comprehend the secrets of the universe, material as well as spiritual. He accepted and used what was concordant with the Holy Qur'«n and rejected the rest as fallacious. He had done the same with the writings of the Greek and Muslim thinkers. Thus, the benefits he acquired from Western knowledge are in detail and not in principle, whose source continues to be the Holy Qur'«n.
4. Though he was impressed with some aspects of the Western society, like science and technology, dynamism, spirit of objective inquiry in the intellectual field, he was not dazzled by the glamour of this society. He had realized that the time had come for Muslims to change their defeatist and apologetic attitude and expressly assert the values of Islam. He rejected the Western nations' materialism, imperialism, capitalism, exploitation of the natural resources of the nations under their political and economic subjugation and compartmentalization of life into religion and the political, economic, social systems. Though his criticism of this aspect is spread over his entire works one very good example is found in the poem titled "Lenin Khuda Kay Huzër Main" (Lenin in Audience with God). The following three verses are the climax of Lenin's speech:
(88) Though apparently it is trade, in reality a gamble
The profit of one, is an instant death to millions
(89) This knowledge , wisdom, prudence, government!
They suck blood while preaching equality
(90) The nation which is deprived of the Divine effusion
The climax of it’s excellence is electric and steam Power
(Appendix III, No. 29)
Another example of the ineptness of the Western philosophy to solve the real human problems is to the poem titled Zam«n«-i-H«zir k« Ins«n (The Present Day Man) in Zarb-i-Kalâm (The Stroke of Moses). The climax is reached in the last verse which says :
(91) O one who the energy of the sun could subdue
The night of life’s darkness could not subdue
(Appendix III, No. 32)
5. ‘All«mah Iqb«l considers, with convincing evidence, the Western civilization to be founded on the pillars of Islamic civilization and to be only an extension of the same. It follows from this that the Western science and technology is the lost heritage of Muslim and they should retrieve it. He was convinced that if the Islamic world had continued its efforts in inquiry and inductive logic the Islamic civilization would have reached the same conclusions as the Western science and philosophy. Even in science and technology the Islamic civilization would have made the same strides and would have reached the same goals as the West .In his paper titled " Islam and the New Learning "(Appendix III , No. 43) he says :
"Bacon (Roger Bacon 1216- 92), Descartes (Rene Descartes 1596- 1650), and Mill (John Stuart Mill 1806- 73) are considered to be Europe’s most eminent philosophers, whose philosophy is said to be based on experience, but the fact is that Descartes’ "Method" is present in Im«m Ghaz«lâ’s Al-Iéy« al-‘Ulëm (Revival of Religious Science) and they are so similar that an English historian has written that if Descartes knew Arabic we would have admitted that he committed plagiarism. Bacon himself was educated at an Islamic University (in Islamic Spain) where he acquired his knowledge and wisdom. The objection raised by John Stuart Mill against the first hypothesis of logic is exactly the same as raised by Im«m Fakhr al-Dân R«zâ and all the fundamental principles of Mill's philosophy are present in the famous book of Shaikh Abu Ali Sin«, "Shif«". In short all the principles which form the foundation of modern learning owe their existence to the beneficence of Muslims. In fact I claim that not only with respect to modern learning but there is not one good aspect of human existence which has not been enlivened by Islam's extremely invigorating influence"
(Cited from Appendix III, No. 35,).
In the spiritual field he arrived at the same conclusion as he had done after studying the works of Muslim scholars. This was that though Intellect is sufficient for accepting the Existence of God comprehension of His Essence is not its destiny:
(92) Though Intellect is not far from the threshold
For in audience (with God) its destiny is not
(Appendix III, No. 29,)
It is appropriate at this stage to comment on the reaction of ‘All«mah Iqb«l to some eminent Western thinkers who are said to have influenced his thought. For the sake of brevity I have subjectively selected six such intellectuals. They are arranged chronologically:
i. Dante Alieghieri (1265-1321)- See Appendix I, No. 21
Dante's influence on ‘All«mah Iqb«l is questionable. Though his Divine Comedy is considered a masterpiece of Western literature and is widely epitomized, from the Muslim point of view, it is an unrestricted outburst of the religious prejudices of a medieval Christian bigot. Almost everybody of the world figures who lived before Sayyidina ¥s« A.S. and those who were not baptized into the Christian faith after his advent are shown in the 'Inferno' (Hell). This includes personalities like the Holy Prophet S.A.W. and ‘Alâ R.A. Without transcribing this most objectionable language used by Dante I invite reference to the Section "Inferno", Canto 28, Lines 21-35. (The Divine Comedy, Translated by Reverend H.E. Cary. Published by Everyman’s Library at the Temple Press, Letchworth, U.K. 1945 Edition, p. 118. ‘All«mah Iqb«l could not have expressed appreciation for such a person, except possibly for the beauty of the language. It is also incorrect to say that ‘All«mah Iqb«l's J«vâd N«mah (The Book of Eternity) is written in the style of Dante's "Divine Comedy" . In fact the Divine Comedy itself was written in the style of the Mi’r«j N«mahs, several of which existed in the Muslim Spain in Dante's time. After reading such books Dante's Divine Comedy is nothing short of lack of professional integrity. ‘All«mah Iqb«l got inspiration for "J«vâd N«mah" from Muslim literature on Mi‘r«j and his own inborn love for the Holy Prophet S.A.W. and his longing for understanding the spiritual world.
ii. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)- See Appendix I, No. 50.
There was concordance between the Holy Qur'«n, on which ‘All«mah Iqb«l's thought is based, and the message of Kant conveyed in his "The Critique of Pure Reason" . ‘All«mah Iqb«l's works are replete with the thought that Intellect is necessary for material progress, may be adequate for comprehension of the Existence of God, as repeatedly stated by the Holy Qur'«n also, it is totally inadequate for the comprehension of His Essence. I have conveyed this information at many places and have consolidated it later in this book under "‘Aql-o-Dil".
iii. Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1749-1832)- See Appendix I, No. 35.
Goethe had studied Eastern literature and philosophy through the translations of the works of Shaikh Farâd al-Dân ‘Aèè«r (ca. 1155-1230), Shaikh Sa‘adâ (ca.1184-1291) and Firdawsâ (d. 1020). Goethe's concept of Allah S.W.T. as "God, Lord, Complete Movement, Internal Movement and Action" is in harmony with the Qur’«nic concept which persuaded ‘All«mah Iqb«l to accept his philosophy and influence. Like ‘All«mah Iqb«l, Goethe also believed in the need for Iblâs or Evil for bringing out the potentialities of Mankind into full play and for sorting out the people of virtue from those of vice. ‘All«mah Iqb«l wrote "Pay«m-i-Mashriq" in response to Goethe's "West-Oestlicher Dâw«n" , which is also known as "Movement of the East". He has shown his appreciation for Goethe in the Introduction to "Pay«m-i-Mashriq" .
iv. George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831)- See Appendix I, No. 38.
Raschid (1981) (Appendix III, No. 52) has developed the thesis that ‘All«mah Iqb«l's concept of God was borrowed from Hegel's concept. His whole argument in this book is fallacious. However, instead of offering my own critique of this book I prefer to refer to Ma‘rëf (1987) (Appendix III, No. 40). His important argument against Raschid's thesis is that Hegel's concept of the Finite cannot be concordant with ‘All«mah Iqb«l's concept of "Al-Hayy al-Qayyëm" (The Living, Self Subsisting, the Eternal), which is based on the Holy Qur'«n 2:255. In addition, I give the following few examples from ‘All«mah Iqb«l's own writings which contradict Raschid's thesis:
In the poem "Jal«l-O-Hegel" [Jal«l ( Mawl«n« Jal«l al-Dân Rëmâ ) and Hegel ] in the book "Pay«m-i-Mashriq" (The Message of the East )‘All«mah Iqb«l compares Mawl«n« Rëmâ with Hegel. I give below only six verses to illustrate the progressive decline of his confidence in Hegel:
(93) One night I was trying to unravel
Mysteries of the German philosopher's thought
(94) As I plunged into his thought's tumultuous sea
The mind's boat as if in a storm was caught
(95) I closed my eyes from the eternal and the ephemeral
Soon sleep engulfed me in a spell's knot
(96) With my inner vision thus sharpened
A saint with a godly face his way to me fought
(97) He said to me "You are asleep, rise!
To sail the boat in a mirage you sought?
(98) Are you trying to traverse the Love's path with Intellect?
The sun with a lamp cannot be sought."
(Appendix III, No. 24)
He has summed up the wisdom of this long poem in another verse which is as follows:
(99) Hegel's thought is a shell without pearl
His talisman is merely an empty dream
(Appendix III, No. 32)
v. Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (1844-1900)
The often expressed opinion that ‘All«mah Iqb«l derived his concept of Fard-i-K«mil or Mard-i-Mu'min from Nietzsche's "Superman" is gravely flawed. Nietzsche believed in material power, acquired and used for personal or national glory and aggrandizement. Nietzsche derived his ideology from Niccolo Machiavelli's (1469-1527) I1 Principe (The Prince). This book justifies all the evil acts of the ruler who is also advised how to acquire political power. His ideology produced persons like Adolph Hitler, Benito Mussolini and Joseph Stalin in Europe who would stop at nothing in the acquisition and use of material power for worldly benefits. On the other hand ‘All«mah Iqb«l's Fard-i-K«mil is a person who has developed his Khudâ to the maximum extent by passing through all the stages of subservience to God as detailed in his book Asr«r-i-Khudâ (The Secrets of the Self). His power is spiritual and ethical, instead of the brute military force of the "Superman". Similarly, the aims and objectives of the Fard-i-K«mil are establishment of the 'Kingdom of God for freedom and justice to all'. The following few quotations from ‘All«mah Iqb«l show the extent of the vast difference between him and Nietzsche:
(100) If that Western Sage had been alive in this age
Iqb«l the elegant status of God would have shown him
(Appendix III, No. 29)
(101) Would that in the age of Ahmad4 He had existed
Climax of spiritual bliss he would have had
(102) The Hakâm could not obtain the Tawéâd's secrets
Insight is needed for comprehension of La Il«h's secrets
(Appendix III, No. 32)
(103) He whose temple is built on the £aram's style
In Heart a Mu’min, in Intellect an infidel is
(Appendix III, No.24)
This verse shows that in ‘All«mah Iqb«l's opinion Nietzsche's Mu'min heart enabled him to acquire the concept of dynamism from the Holy Qur'«n but his materialistic, or infidel Intellect misled him into using it for evil purposes. He misused the Islamic concept of dynamism for fulfilling the un-Islamic ideals of the "Superman" of his thinking.
vi. Henry Bergson (1859-1941)- See Appendix III, No. 16.
Bergson's thinking about the Essence of God was somewhat concordant with ‘All«mah Iqb«l's thought, which is based on the Holy Qur'«n as stated earlier. For that reason he accepted Bergson's philosophy and benefited from its detailed study. For reasons stated in the "Introduction" this cannot be taken as ‘All«mah Iqb«l basing his concept of God on that of Bergson. So he warns the reader against blind acceptance of the philosophy of Bergson.
(104) If your Khudâ had not abandoned you
Bergson would not have enthralled you
(Appendix III, No. 32)
(5) Nightly Tahajjud Prayers and Meditations, Early Dawn Prayers and Supplications to God for Guidance
In addition to the external sources discussed so far there were three internal sources of ‘All«mah Iqb«l's thought. They were part and parcel of his personality and made him what he was. The relationship between the internal and external sources is that of the soil and the seed. Neither good quality seed nor water is any use if the soil is poor. These internal sources were based on three attributes of ‘All«mah Iqb«l's character, viz.
i. Im«n or Faith and Belief
ii. Khudâ or cognizance of the potential of Man.
iii. Early morning prayers and supplications to God
Im«n and Khudâ are explained later in this chapter in some detail. For the present it must be remembered that ‘All«mah Iqb«l has praised these attributes in all his works and many examples will be found in the chapters in the translation and commentary. Similarly, early morning prayers, with supplications and wailings to God constitute part of his recipe for attaining perfection in thought and deed. The following is a very comprehensive verse in this context:
(105) ‘Aèè«r, or Rëmâ, or R«zâ or Ghaz«lâ you may be
Nothing is achieved without early morning wailing
(Appendix III, No. 29)
(106) Though the winter's breeze sword's sharpness had
Even in London the habit of rising at dawn I had
(Appendix III, No. 29)
(107) Sainthood, sovereignty, the universality of material knowledge
Merely by the unraveling of the secrets of Faith are created
(Appendix III, No.25)
Conclusion
This discussion leads us to the inevitable inference that in the multi-dimensional sphere of ‘All«mah Iqb«l’s thought the Holy Qur'«n occupies the central position of the nucleus of an atom or that of a biological cell. Like the former the Holy Qur'«n possesses and emanates the light of the Truth, and like the latter it controls all the details, which together constitute ‘All«mah Iqb«l's thought. The internal sources affecting the development of his thought provided the fertile ground in which the external influences grew and bloomed into his creative literature. It is, therefore, appropriate to say that the raison d' etre of his works is the elucidation and elaboration of the Wisdom of God and of His word, i.e. the Holy Qur’«n. The bouquet he created has the Holy Qur'«n as the center piece and other thoughts the pattern enhancing its beauty.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF ‘ALLÿMAH IQBÿL: SOURCES AND EXPRESSION
IN
BÿNG-I-DARÿ
SECTION II
EXPRESSION OF ‘ALLÿMAH IQBÿL'S
THOUGHT IN BÿNG-I-DARÿ
Every book of ‘All«mah Iqb«l has a message whose clarification is the purpose of that book. "B«ng-i-Dar«" covers practically the whole panorama of his thought. Each poem has a message, which has been indicated and briefly reviewed, if necessary, in the "Introduction" of that poem. However, some aspects of his thought, expressed in this book, are of major importance and can be considered to be its pillars. Some of them are controversial in themselves and on some ‘All«mah Iqb«l's views appear controversial. Their proper understanding is essential for the correct comprehension of the poems in which they occur. The following topics have been selected subjectively for this purpose.
1. TaÅawwuf
2. The controversy of Waédat al-Wujëd (The Unity of Existence) and Waédat al- Shuhëd, (The Unity of Manifestation)
3. Faqr
4. The status of Man in the Universe and the concept of Khudâ
5. The controversy of 'Aql (Intellect) and Dil (Heart or Intuition)
6. Political views of ‘All«mah Iqb«l, particularly the concept of "nation"
The critics of ‘All«mah Iqb«l differ on his views on some of these components of his thought. The evaluation presented here is the result of my own comprehension of his works. Before discussing these subjects it is necessary to explain that each of these subjects is so wide as to need a separate book for elucidation of all its aspects, and separate books have been written on some of them. However, the scope and available space in this book do not permit exhaustive treatment of these subjects. Consequently, I shall restrict myself to the minimum necessary to understand the translation and commentary.
1.TaÅawwuf- Though taÅawwuf itself does not form the theme of any poem its clear understanding and that of ‘All«mah Iqb«l's views on it is necessary for correct comprehension of many poems. The etymology of this word is controversial. Walâ al-Dân (1948) (Appendix III, No 56) has discounted the four commonly held views on the grounds of grammar and usage.
Walâ-al-Dân (Appendix III, No. 56) gives the opinions of several eminent scholars and Sëfâs about the origin of Sëfâ and TaÅawwuf . Though he has cited the opinions of several other eminent Sëfâs I refrain from including them here for brevity. However, they all agree on the definition of taÅawwuf by Shaikh al-Islam Zakariy«h AnÅ«râ (11th. century) viz. "TaÅawwuf is the science which shows the method of cleansing the soul, improvement of conduct and reconstruction of the outer as well as the inner life for obtaining eternal felicity".
According to ‘All«mah Iqb«l himself (Appendix III, No. 21) the "Sëfâ" ideal of life appeared about the end of the eighth and the first half of the ninth century, created by the political, social, and intellectual conditions of the Muslim society, which resulted in the tendencies of seclusion in the life of pious persons. These persons spent most of their time in prayer and contemplation, which is the essence of Sëfism. The conditions are summarized below:
A. This was a period of political unrest resulting from the following events:
(a) Overthrow of the Umayyad Dynasty (749)
(b) Persecution of real and suspected blasphemers and revolt of Persian heretics and Ustadhis (766-68).
(c) Appearance of £akam Ibn Hash«m al-Muqann«’, known as "the veiled prophet" in Khur«s«n (777-80). He always wore a veil which gave him the above name. He claimed to be a prophet but really he cloaked his anti-Islamic political projects in the guise of religion and collected a sizable group of followers.
(d) Quarrels between the sons of H«rën al-Rashâd (Mamën and Amân) for political supremacy.
(e) Rise and establishment of independent Persian dynasties, viz. the ñ«éirid (820), the Samarid (868) and Samanid (874) kingdoms.
B. The skeptical tendencies of Islamic rationalism which entered the Muslim society from the Greek and Zoroastrian philosophies. Everything which could not be proved by logic was rejected. The most important of such concepts in the context of this commentary was Waédat-al-Wujëd whose harmful effects on the Muslim society have been explained in Chapter 2 and later in this one.
C. The dry piety of the followers of the four schools of fiqh of the Sunnâs and that of the Shi‘as. The ‘Ulem«’ lacked the Love of God as well as that of Mankind. This reduced the Sharâ‘ah to an unending series of punishments and failed to create human love and understanding.
D. The religious debates, called Mun«ïar«t, among the leaders of the various creeds, encouraged by Khalâfah Mamën al-Rashâd, created bitterness among Muslims and divided their society into internecine quarrels and enmity, which has continued till today.
E. The gradual reduction of religious zeal created by the rise of rationalism mentioned above and the rapid flow of wealth among the Muslims during the early Abbasid period made the Muslim elite slack in the observance of religious rites and duties
F. The apparent charm in the quality of the religious faith of the Christian ascetics captured the imagination of the Muslim scholars to follow them as an ideal.
In my humble opinion another explanation also exists in addition to the foregoing about the origin and contents of taÅawwuf. This explanation is based on the ingenious strategy of Providence in making Mankind inquisitive in nature and at the same time concealing all secrets from him. This is beautifully described by ‘All«mah Iqb«l in Poem 67. "Ins«n" (Mankind) in B«ng-i-Dar« whose translation may be perused in the light of this chapter. It is clear from this that the Creator Himself wants Mankind to know His innermost secrets so as to obtain everlasting happiness, such as one gets by coming to know what he does not know.
The whole Creation of God can be divided into two levels of existence viz., (1) the ÿlam al-Shuhëd (the Physical or Material Universe) and (2) the ÿlam-al-Ghayb (the Metaphysical or Spiritual Universe), which exists beyond the Material Universe.
Knowledge of the Physical Universe can be acquired by experimentation. The method of experimentation covers all sciences, physical, biological and social, fundamental as well as applied. The results obtained from experiments can be presented in a systematized, mutually correlated form through the medium of scientific reasoning. The methodology of experimentation is repeatable, and when repeated produces the same results every time. Scientists have accumulated an extremely valuable treasure of knowledge by centuries of patient study. Still much remains to be known.
The Metaphysical or Spiritual Universe does not lend itself to experimentation of the type to which the Physical Universe does. Still the knowledge of the Metaphysical Universe can be obtained in the following three ways:
1. Divine Revelation-God has conveyed a great deal of knowledge to Mankind by Divine Revelation in the form of Waéy to His specially selected servants called Prophets and through other forms of revelation to the persons of smaller status. The contents as well as the language of such revelations has been made progressively sophisticated in concordance with the progressively evolving Intellect of the succeeding recipient generations of humanity. Remnants of the past revelations presently exist and constitute the treasure house of the heritage of Mankind. Unfortunately, such revelations have been variously intermixed with impurities in the forms of distortions and tampering, intentional as well as unintentional. Fortunately the last such Revelation still exists in the Holy Qur'«n in its original contents as well as in pristine literary excellence.
2. Philosophy Some knowledge of the Metaphysical Universe can be and has been obtained through philosophy, which is based on human thinking and logic. Here also there is a serious difficulty. While the structure of religion and science is based on positive thinking that of philosophy rests on skepticism and doubt, which are forms of negative thinking. Philosophy probes into the nature of things by doubting the existing knowledge. The results of such a process are necessarily inconclusive and subjective. This creates serious objections to its acceptance. In these circumstances a great part of the Metaphysical Universe not only remains hidden from human comprehension but will remain beyond their reach by pursuing the accepted approaches of philosophy.
3. TaÅawwuf The knowledge of the Metaphysical Universe is a part of the wisdom of the verses of the Holy Qur'«n, called Mut«sh«bih«t, which are defined as "allegorical, multivalent or obscure in meaning", in contrast with those called Muékam«t which are clear and decisive in meaning. The Holy Qur'«n refers to these two kinds of verses in 3:7. Much controversy exists among the exegesists of the Holy Qur’«n about the interpretation of this particular verse as well as the whole problem of Muékam«t and Mut«sh«bih«t verses. Ayoub (1992) (Appendix III, No. 10, Vol. 2) has discussed only three aspects of this problem, viz.
1. The meaning and significance of this problem
2. The identity of "those in whose hearts is deviancy"
3. The identity of "those who are firmly rooted in knowledge"
Study of this reference is recommended for more clarification.
Understanding the Mut«sh«bih«t verses is extremely difficult and is not possible without deep insight in and hard labor by the ÿrif and without Divine Help. The often repeated injunction of the Holy Qur'«n 'to meditate over the Signs of God in the Universe and in the Holy Qur'«n itself' is a clear pointer to this being the only possible way for the ÿrif to know the secrets of the Metaphysical Universe (30:20-27; 41:53; 89:15-16 to quote only a few).
This meditation was performed by those pious persons who wanted to know the Truth. They withdrew from the common people and the ignoble strife of their daily life and spent days and nights meditating and praying to God to show them the right way to get to the core of the Truth in accordance with the Holy Qur'«n 1:5-7. Such persons were Sëfâs and the treasure of knowledge they have accumulated over the centuries is the knowledge of the Metaphysical Universe called taÅawwuf, which also is an invaluable heritage of all Mankind. The pioneers of taÅawwuf have laid down the methodology of acquiring this knowledge and benefiting from it. Variations in the methodology exist which have given rise to different Sëfâ orders called ñarâqah.
Thus, taÅawwuf is really the science of attaining proximity to God. The Sëfâ who is conversant with this proximity, knows the secrets of the proximity of the created and the Creator and of the latter being the Primal and the Ultimate. He does not only know the secrets but also encompasses these secrets completely. When he leaves his material body on death he attains the proximity of God. According to the Holy Qur’«n 56:8-10 humanity will be divided into three classes on the Day of Judgment. These will be "Companions of the Right Hand", "Companions of the Left Hand" and those "Foremost in Faith and Foremost in the Hereafter". The first class acquired knowledge which guided them in their conduct during life. Their reward is described in verses 56:27-38. The second class are those who acquired knowledge which trapped them in the worldly pleasures and greed. They were misled and their punishment is described in 56:42-46 and 50-56. The third one is the class which has attained proximity to God by their knowledge, deeds, the Love of God and the sacrifices required by that Love, according to the Holy Qur’«n 2:155 and many other verses. Their reward is the highest and is described in verses 56:11-26. The best part of their highest award is the proximity to God.
The proximity of God in the worldly life is attained by taÅawwuf. The Sëfâ is nearest to God and derives the realization of his trust from the realization of his faqr , (vide infra for meaning). This realization of his faqr leads him to the realization of the qualities of his own existence and self cognizance called An« (Self or I-ness) and Khudâ by ‘All«mah Iqb«l. The Sëfâ realizes that the attributes and actions of ownership and authority are only a trust and are not his property. Hence he realizes that he owes his existence to the Existence and the Will of God, his life to His Life, his knowledge to His knowledge, his powers and intentions to His Powers and Intentions, his hearing to His hearing, his sight to His Sight and his speech to His Speech etc.
The object of the Sëfâ’s Love and Longing is God, his life and his death, his ‘Ib«dah are all for God and for Him alone. He is always unaware of and unconcerned with everything except God. His heart is purified. In this sense he is close to the Truth and separated from all else. His creed is;
(108) "None is desired except God; None is the goal except God; None is the object of Love except God; None has existence except God."
In short in the words of ‘All«mah Iqb«l;
(109) No one encompasses this secret that the Mu’min
Apparently is reading the Qur’«n but really the Qur’«n he is
(Appendix III, No. 32)
In conclusion it can be said that while science and Revelation are based on the head taÅawwuf is based on the heart.
The foregoing account is a description of true taÅawwuf and Sëfâ. It is quite obvious that the creed and theory of taÅawwuf is in line with the Qur’«nic teachings and goals. This was the purpose and goal of all the Divinely revealed religions and prophets and that of Islam par excellence. See the Holy Qur’«n 2:120; 16:64-65; 39:23.
These are the positive aspects of taÅawwuf as stated by its proponents. Other divergent views also exist which have been discussed by AnÅ«râ (1986) (Appendix III, No. 9, pp. 119-39). Discussion of these controversies is neither possible in this chapter nor is conducive to the comprehension of B«ng-i-Dar«. So I refrain from it. The above reference may be perused if desired.
The early Sëfâs were on the right path and rendered invaluable service to Islam and its thought. Islam spread over the greater part of the world, particularly in Asia through the efforts of Sëfâs. They have stood the test of time and are still attesting to the achievements of Sëfâs. There is hardly any city or town in this region which does not have one or more tombs or mausoleums of these sages. The Sëfâs had no military force to subjugate the people into accepting Islam. They had no wealth to entice them. They had no political or economic influence to pass on to their followers. All they had was the depth of knowledge, and spiritual experience and the force of their conviction in that knowledge and experience. They worked hard and were a role model of selflessness. Their qualities of the head and heart achieved what no material resources could. Cf.
(110) Neither throne, nor crown, nor even the armies have
The power which the audiences of these sages have
(Appendix III, 29)
For examples of the achievements of Sëfâs see the biographical notes on some Sëfâs in Appendix III and for the rest in Quddësâ (1976) (Appendix III, No. 49). ‘All«mah Iqb«l has paid them high tributes all through his works. Many examples exist in B«ng-i-Dar« and they have been referred to in the translation and commentary at the appropriate places.
While the early Sëfâ were on the right path undesirable views, beliefs and practices crept into taÅawwuf later, which drew the ire of Fuqah«, especially those interpreting the Sharâ‘ah literally. It opened the doors of bid‘ahs and made it difficult for the average Muslim to know the right course. However, an incontrovertible criterion exists for a Muslim to judge taÅawwuf on the basis of the Holy Qur’«n and the Sunnah of the Holy Prophet S.A.W. Unfortunately, this also is fraught with the same problem, i.e. the relative credibility of contradictory interpretations.
The objectionable trends came into taÅawwuf from several sources. The more important of these is the infiltration of the Greek, Persian, and to some extent the Hindu philosophies. Very early in the Islamic history two groups of thinkers appeared, called Ash«‘irah and the Më‘tazilah. The former were the followers of ‘Abu al-£asan ‘Alâ Ibn Ism«âl al-Ash’«râ (873-935). They remained steadfast to the commands of the Holy Qur’«n and the Sunnah. In this group also some scholars interpreted the Sharâ‘ah literally, which resulted in considerable harm. The latter interpreted the Sharâ‘ah through logic and Intellect. The ineptness of their approach is discussed later under "‘Aql O Dil". They made strange interpretations of the Mut«sh«bih«t verses. Their main disservice to Islam was the concept that the Sharâ‘ah and its observance was incumbent on the ordinary Muslims only and not on Sëfâs who were the select people of God and were absolved of the responsibility of obedience to follow the Shari’«h.
Instead of seeking the ways and means of obtaining the proximity of God many Sëfâs focused their attention on acquiring the techniques of performing apparently superhuman acts, like walking on water and on burning embers, healing the sick and easing worldly hardships of people. Even recourse was taken to un-Islamic practices of learning these techniques by learning the jugglers' tricks from their Greek and Hindu practitioners. The Sëfâs found a short cut to do these tricks to attain prestige in the eyes of the people instead of following the difficult path of gaining proximity to God, who may have eventually endowed them with such powers. Obviously, the main purpose of these practices was self aggrandizement and obtaining material benefits. The Shaikhs, both alive and dead, became the objects of extraordinary reverence, verging on their deification to some extent. All this led to the polarization of the Muslim society into two groups. One group interpreted the Shari’«h literally and made its practice difficult as well as a mere ritual. The other was the group of Sëfâs who commercialized Islam. One inescapable consequence of this state of affairs was the alienation of the present day educated Muslims from Islam itself.
Just as ‘All«mah Iqb«l has paid great tributes to the Sëfâs of the correct type he has exhibited equally great frustration from and abhorrence towards those of the wrong type. The examples of this are numerous but I am presenting only a few. All except the last one have been selected from B«l-i-Jibrâl (Appendix III, No. 29). The last one is from Zarb-i-Kalâm (Appendix III, No. 32)
(111) My tiny pitcher is blessing in this day and age
As the Sëfâ's decanter in the monastery' is empty (p. 19)
(112) Some abandoned the caravan, some distrust the £aram
As the caravan's leader devoid of empathy is (p. 28)
(113) Thy commandments are true but our exegesists
By interpretations can change the Qur'«n into P«zand5 (p. 33)
(114) The faqâh has been taught the ways of monasticism
The city's faqâh is spoiled by the Sëfâ (p. 56)
(115) These sages of the church and the £aram, how disappointing (p. 87)
The fruit of their labors the absence of the Insight is !
(116) In the Sëfâ's fraternity no Longing for the Vision is
Only the long tale of super human acts is left (p. 95)
(117) On the Judgment's Day Allah will be embarrassed by
The blankness of the pages of the Sëfâ and mullah's book (p.95)
(118) These midnight prayers these meditations these ecstasies
If they are not the guardian of your Khudâ are but naught (p. 29)
2. The Controversy of Waédat al-Wujëd vs.. Waédat al-Shuhëd - Under the influence of the Greek and Zoroastrian philosophies some Muslim thinkers also degraded Man to a non-entity in the creation of God in spite of the clear teachings of the Holy Qur’«n to the contrary. Greeks were the originators of two main philosophies concerning creation, Universe or Matter. These are called "Idealism" and "Realism". These terms mean different in philosophy from their meaning in common English. "Idealism" says that the real existence is only of One Being, which chooses myriad of forms to manifest Itself. The Universe, made up of these forms, is only a mirage with no real existence and is a creation of Man's ideas only. The theory of "Realism" says that the Universe or Matter has a real existence, which is eternal with no beginning and no end. These two diverse theories are the progenitors of all subsequent theories about God and Matter, vis a vis each other.
Based on the theory of "Idealism" the famous Sëfâ Ibn al-‘Arabâ (Appendix I, No. 40) postulated his doctrine of Waédat-al-Wujëd. On the basis of "Realism" agnostics and atheists propounded their theories of atheism and deification of Matter. These two theories have always been in conflict with each other.
The basic concept of Ibn al-‘Arabâ is that there is only One Being or Existence. It means that: (i) all that exists is One Being; (ii) that the One Being or Existence has no parts; (iii) that it is neither more here nor less there. It is Indivisible and Homogeneous. Even in the time of Ibn al-’Arabâ many Muslim ‘Ulama and Sëfâs challenged his views and presented the via media between the two extreme theories described above. Famous personalities in this class are: Im«m al-Ghaz«1â (Appendix I, No. 33), Ibn Taymiyah (Appendix I, No.42) and Mawl«n« Rëmâ (Appendix I, No. 65) among the early thinkers and Sëfâs and Mujaddid Alf Th«nâ (Appendix I, No. 57) and ‘All«mah Iqb«l among the latter ones. They consider Matter or Universe to be the creation of God or His "Reflection" or "Light". Mujaddid named this concept as Waédat al-Shuhëd. This theory says that:
i. God is completely different from the creation or the Universe. The two are not the same individual or homogeneous entity but two different entities.
ii. The Universe proceeds from or is created by God. In other words 'All is not He' (Ham« ëst) but from Him (Ham« az ëst).
iii. The Universe is not real but only a reflection or virtual image of something else which is real. Being only a virtual image it is not eternal and is ephemeral. The eternal Existence is only that of God. Creation will be annihilated, changed to some other form or substituted by some other Universe at the Will of God.
iv. Though the Universe is unreal it is not completely imaginary or a phantom. It is the image of something real whose nature we do not know and is the object of the quest of Man.
v. The components of the Universe have a power or will of their own. Man also has a power or will of his own.
The theory of Waédat al-Shuhëd is based on the teachings of the Holy Qur'«n and Hadâth. For a comprehensive critique of Waédat al-Wujëd and Mujaddid's views on it see AnÅ«râ (1986) (Appendix III, No. 9, pp. 101-17). Of the many theological and philosophical flaws in the theory of Waédat al-Wujëd described by Mujaddid the most important in the view of ‘All«mah Iqb«l in the present context is the concept of "Pre-ordination","Determinism" or "Fatalism" which entered the Muslim society later.
Among the Muslims the concept of "Waédat al-Wujëd " was most strictly adhered to by the Ash«‘irah. In their usual manner of literal interpretation they said that all objects are composed of identical particles. Man is composed of the same particles as all the other creation. They explain the obvious differences between Man and other creatures as well as the differences between the different components of creation by attributing it to the Will of God, which has preordained everything. This Will is unquestionable and immutable. This preordination includes all the lucky and unlucky events that befall Man in his life on earth. They find confirmation of this belief in the Sëfâ concept that both the good and the evil in this world come from God, which is one of Muslim beliefs also. The concept of preordination has produced the concept of Fatalism which says that the Fate of a person, like everything else, is preordained by the Immutable Will of God. This ended in the concept of the ineptness of the human race to control its destiny which was considered to be predetermined by the only Being which alone really existed. The preordination constituted the person's Immutable destiny or Fate. As I have stated earlier under this concept human effort became redundant and useless. This led the Muslim society abandoning dynamism and becoming static with all the misfortunes associated with it and described earlier. In the individual’s life also this concept not only paralyzed the individual’s desire and will to improve his condition and perform good deeds for the betterment of one's own self as well as that of the Muslim Ummah and the human race at large. It also denies God's Omnipotent nature as revealed in many verses of the Holy Qur’«n, e.g. 2:284. ‘All«mah Iqb«l says in this respect
(119) I do not know what its name is, deceiving God or himself
Muslim absolved himself of action under Destiny's excuse
(Appendix III, No. 33)
Another harmful aspect of Waédat al-Wujëd is the belief that the highest felicity for Man is Fan« Fi Allah (Annihilation or Merger with God), for which annihilation of one's self and complete withdrawal from the mundane material world is essential. This would also lead to cessation of all human effort for the betterment and progress of the self as well as that of the Ummah and mankind at large. For the Ash«‘irah and Mu`tazilah and their controversy see Iqb«l (1908) (Appendix III, No. 20)
‘All«mah Iqb«l has opposed both these aspects of Waédat al-Wujëd. Regarding the former he said that according to the Holy Qur'«n God has conferred a will and autonomy on Man, albeit limited. He considers evil as necessary for the realization of good and separation of the virtuous and sinning individuals. He based his argument on the Holy Qur'«n 4:79, according to which whatever good comes to man comes from God and whatever evil befalls him comes from himself. He explains this verse or the above mentioned concept of the coexistence and interdependence of good and evil with the example of a bird. The resistance of the air, which is an obstruction to its flight, is also essential for the flight, which is possible only by overcoming this resistance by the bird. In the same way overcoming evil is within the power and the will of a person through which he overcomes evil and attains virtue. If the person does not use his will to overcome the obstructions in his path he fails and meets with evil, as the bird which does not want to face the air's resistance cannot fly.
Regarding the latter concept ‘All«mah Iqb«l perceived in Sëfism the danger of reducing all human effort to passive mystical contemplation. This was not his concept of Man. Consequently, criticizing this aspect of sëfism he says :
"The only danger to which the ego is exposed in this Divine quest is the possible relaxation of his activity caused by his enjoyment of and absorption in the experiences that precede the final experience. The history of Eastern Sëfism shows that this is a real danger. This was the whole point of the reform movement initiated by the great Indian saint (Shaikh AHED Sirhindâ, Mujaddid Alf-i-Th«nâ) from whose writings I have already quoted a passage. And the reason is obvious. The ultimate aim of the ego is not to see something, but to be something. It is in the ego's effort to be something that he discovers his final opportunity to sharpen his objectivity and acquire a more fundamental 'I am', which finds evidence of its reality not in the Cartesian 'I think' but in Kantian 'I can'. The end of the ego's quest is not emancipation from the limitations of individuality; it is on the other hand, a more precise definition of it. The final act is not an intellectual act, but a vital act which deepens the whole being of the ego, and sharpens his will with the creative assurance that the world is not something to be merely seen or known through concepts, but something to be made and re-made by continuous action. It is a moment of supreme bliss and also a moment of the greatest trial for the ego. (Appendix III, No.27, pp. 197-98).
He considers the eating of the forbidden fruit by Sayyidina ÿdam A.S. as the first exercise of the will and autonomy bestowed by God on Man. This was a forbidden act but it led to the ultimate good in the sense that the transfer of Sayyidina ÿdam's A.S. to the earth and his seeing and acquiring knowledge of God and His creation resulted in the Manifestation of God.
In the whole creation of God Man was the only creation who could comprehend the beauty and the wisdom of the Creator and who could use the Universe wisely and could even improve it. So, according to Islam the act of eating of the fruit of the forbidden tree was neither a sin committed by Sayyidina ÿdam A.S. nor his transfer to the earth was a punishment for that sin. It was an act of the will of Sayyidina ÿdam A.S., which was committed in accordance with the Universal Wisdom of God and resulted in His Manifestation. No other creature could do it. ‘All«mah Iqb«l expressing this view says:
(120) Though Thy Eternal Essence since eternity had existed
Fragrance had not diffused though flower in the garden existed
(Appendix III, No. 25)
It frees Man from the slavery of Determinism and makes him master of his own destiny, based on the concept of autonomy granted by God to Man.
3. Faqr- Faqr is an Arabic word literally meaning "poverty", "indigence" and "material needs" and faqâr is a poor, needy or indigent person. However, faqr is also a technical term of taÅawwuf. ‘Alâ Hujwârâ (Appendix I, No. 8) has given a detailed description of this term in his famous book al-Kashf al- Maéjëb, (The Unveiling of the Veiled) (Appendix III, No. 7). He describes faqr as a state of the mind or nafs, in which possession of material wealth or not possessing it has no effect on the person. The following quotation sums up his explanation:
"Faqr has a form (rasm) and an essence (éaqâqat). Its form is destitution and indigence, but its essence is fortune and free choice. He who regards the form rests in the form, and failing to attain his object, flees from the essence, but he who has found the essence averts his gaze from all created things, and, in complete annihilation, seeing only the All-One he hastens towards the fullness of eternal life. The faqâr has nothing and can suffer no loss. He does not become rich by having anything, nor indigent by having nothing: both these conditions are alike to him in respect of his faqr "
‘All«mah Iqb«l has written much on faqr and some of these poems are very forceful, both linguistically as well as emotionally. His concept of faqr is based on the same foundations as mentioned in the first sentence in the above quotation. He also recognizes the above mentioned two kinds of faqr. He has high respect and praise for the faqr of the "essence" type and condemnation for that of the "form" type. His attitude is based on the fact that the faqr of the former kind is practiced by persons of Faith and Love of God and that of the latter kind is done by the opposite kind of persons. They become and remain poor due to their belief in fatalism which ends in their distancing themselves from effort.
The long poem titled Faqr in the book Pas Che B«yad Kard Ay Aqw«m-i-Sharq (So What Should be Done O Oriental Nations) ‘All«mah Iqb«l has described the miraculous effects of faqr on the actions of the true Mumin and his achievements. This poem is so beautiful and appealing that I cannot resist the temptation of quoting a few verses below even at the risk of using some space.
(121) O People of the material world, What is faqr?
Faqr is insight into the way, a living heart
(122) Faqr is the comprehension of one’s obligation
Struggling for the two words of La Il«ha6 it is
(123) Faqr is Khaibar's conqueror with barley's bread is7
Carrying in its saddle bag all kings and chiefs is
(124) Faqr the Desire, Longing, submission and will is
We are its trustees, that the wealth of Mustaf« is
(125) Its substance is derived from the Holy Qur'«n
Impossible to confine the saint in a blanket is
(126) The wisdom of dân the fascination of faqr
The power of dân is the freedom of faqr
(127) The Qur'«n's faqr reckoning of past and present is
Not ecstasy, singing, music and merry-making it is
(128) What is the Mu’min’s faqr ? Conquering of the world !
Under its influence Man is the possessor of divine attributes
(129) The infidel's faqr is seclusion at home and in wilderness
The Mu'min's faqr the power to shake the world in fear is!
(130) The unveiled faqr the heat of Badr and Hunain is 8
The unveiled faqr the call of Husain's 9 Takbir is
(Appendix III, No. 30)
In B«l-i-Jibrâl (The Gabriel's Wings) in poem 59 he praises the faqr of the "essence" type. Though the whole poem is worth reading I give only a few verses below for the sake of brevity:
(131) The miracles of Faqr are the crown, the throne, the army
Faqr , the chief of chiefs is, faqr the king of kings is !
(132) The object of knowledge cleansing of the Intellect is
The aim of faqr cleansing of the heart and the insight is
(133) Knowledge, jurist and scholar; faqr Masâh 10 and Kalâm 11
Knowledge seeker of the way, faqr knower of the way is
(Appendix III, No. 29)
In the poem Faqr in the same book he describes the evils and virtues of the "form" and "essence" types of faqr in the first and second hemistichs respectively of each verse:
(134) One faqr teaches the hunter how the hunted to be!
One faqr opens the secrets of world sovereignty
(135) With one faqr dust gets the attributes of elixir
With one faqr in nations there is sorrow and poverty
(136) One faqr is Shabbârâ 12, in this faqr is success!
The heritage of the Muslim, the wealth of Shabbârâ !
(Appendix III, No. 29)
4. Khudâ This word is usually translated into English as 'ego' or 'self'. According to the New Webster's Encyclopedic Dictionary 'ego' means 'the subject which is conscious of itself, thinks, has experience of, and determines the outside world as the 'object' or 'non-ego'. According to the same source 'self' means 'the individuality or nature of a person or thing; a person's nature or an aspect of it, as revealed by his behavior'. Khudâ is also a technical term of taÅawwuf which will be the subject of our discussion. Though the adequate elucidation of the concept of Khudâ would need a separate book, some of which already exist, some explanation of it is necessary at this stage to understand several poems in B«ng-i-Dar« and to obtain an understanding of this very important component of the thought of ‘All«mah Iqb«l. As has been stated earlier Islamic thought was influenced most by the Greek philosophy, out of the four philosophies existing at the time of the advent of Islam, viz. Greek, Persian or Zoroastrian, Hindu and Chinese. As also stated earlier this influence came into Muslims directly as well as through Christian literature, which had been greatly influenced by the Greek philosophy.
These philosophies considered the Universe as eternal or the creation of a fortuitous accident or a playful act of the gods, or at best an impulsive Will of the Supreme Being in the Pantheon. Regarding Man the Greek philosophy of Idealism denied the very existence of Man beyond being an insignificant part of the Universe, which itself was considered to be only a figment of human imagination, with no real existence.
The Christian thought added to it the concept of "primeval sin" committed by S. ÿdam (A.S.) on account of which he was expelled from Paradise. The Holy Qur’«n rejected all these theories and declared that the Universe was created by God with a purpose, was well planned and was not eternal as previously explained in some detail. In complete negation and contradiction of these philosophies the Holy Qur'«n presented the opposite view. It designated Man as the masterpiece of creation, created in the best of molds, God's own image, endowed with free will and designated as the Khalâfah or vicegerent of God on earth (The Holy Qur’«n 2:30; 6:2, 164, 165; 10:99, Note 1480 in the reference in Appendix III, No. 8; 15:26, 29; 16:4-8; 90:8-10; and 95:4). ‘All«mah Iqb«l has adopted the same view and has propagated it throughout his works. It will be right to consider khudâ as the strongest pillar of his philosophy. Though Man has been created from lowly elements, symbolized by clay in the Holy Qur'«n, he owes his superiority to the possession of a special faculty which is rather inexplicable, though it has been known by different names, such as spirit, soul, rëé, mind, conscience, etc. Each one of these words is a collective name for the Divinely endowed qualities of comprehension, pious affections, spiritual insight and free will. These faculties were meant to enable Man to understand, appreciate, judiciously manage and benefit from the Universe. In the whole creation of God Man was the only entity who could appreciate the Wujëd (Existence) of God and comprehend His Z«t (Essence). Other creatures, inanimate as well as animate are incapable of these attributes and have only an involuntary existence, following the physical laws of the Universe which is their destiny.
Such a being as Man would obviously have a superior concept of his own entity, its purpose, aims and end. ‘All«mah Iqb«l calls this faculty Khudâ. He has very beautifully explained this potential of Man for comprehension of the Creator and the creation in the poem "Taskhâr-i-Fièrat", Part I "Mâl«d-i-ÿdam" (Subjugation of Nature, Part I, The Birth of Man). As selection is impossible the whole poem is given below:
(137) Love cried out that a very compassionate entity had appeared
Beauty trembled that an entity with Insight had appeared
(138) Nature was surprised that from the helpless earth's dust
A maker of self, destroyer of self, seer of self had appeared
(139) News went out from the sky to the eternity’s bed chamber
Warning the veiled ones the one tearing the veils had appeared
(140) The longing, unaware of itself, in the bosom of life
Opened its eyes to a new world which had appeared
(141) Life said that it had tarried in the dust all its life
Till in this ancient vault an opening had appeared
(Appendix III: No. 24 )
Khudâ is comprised of the following four components:
i. Realization of the superiority of Man and the potential of his spiritual powers. This is very beautifully described in poem 25 "Ins«n aur Bazm-i-Qudrat" (Man and Nature's Assembly) in B«ng-i-Dar« which may be perused for understanding and enjoying this concept.
ii. Comprehension of the relative values of Intellect and Love (or Intellect and Intuition, or the Head and the Heart). See poem No. 15 "‘Aql -O Dil" (The Intellect and the Heart) in B«ng-i-Dar« for appreciating this concept.
iii. Comprehension of the controversy of "Khair and Shar" (Good and Evil) for which perusal of poem No. 46 "Aik Parinda aur Jugnë" (A Bird and the Fire Fly) in B«ng-i-Dar« is recommended.
iv. Comprehension of the human desire for eternal life. This desire is universal and has existed in Man since his creation. It started with the secret of Chashmah-i-Hay«t (The Spring of Eternity) whose water would confer eternity, and Iksâr (Elixir) which would convert base metals into gold and confer eternal wealth. Though these goals have remained unrealized the human efforts in these directions became the fountainhead from which flowed the springs of knowledge which have created the whole reservoir of learning which God has conferred on Man. Perusal of poem 48 "Kan«r-i-R«vâ" (On the Banks of the ravi), in B«ng-i-Dar«, specially the last stanza is recommended for understanding this concept.
Though ‘All«mah Iqb«l's works are replete with the concept of the superiority of Man I have to content myself with just one verse which I give below:
(142) I have learnt the lesson from the Prophet's Ascension to the Spiritual World
That the world of Man transcends the spiritual world
(Appendix III, No. 29)
‘All«mah Iqb«l has recommended the following program for the development of khudâ in the book Asr«r-i-Khudâ (The Secrets of the Self):
i. Love of God and the Holy Prophet S.A.W.
ii. Obedience of God and the Holy Prophet S.A.W., based on the Love mentioned under (i).
iii. Distancing one self from Fatalism which is an offshoot of Plato's philosophy as explained earlier.
iv. Abstention from asking favors from any other than God.
v. Creation and procreation of objectives and ideals. The best of these are to exalt and propagate the name and commandments of God by all means possible and to enact and establish them after attaining the necessary political and material power.
vi. Holding fast to the characteristic Islamic traditions in order to attain and continue honor in material life.
vii. Instead of trying to attain eternity by merging with the Essence of God by annihilation of the self and divorcing the material life one should submit his will to the Will of God and attain fulfillment of His slavery.
viii. Attainment of the vicegerency of God as the final stage when a person can and should establish the Kingdom of God, or the Islamic State on earth.
The climax of Khudâ consists in merging the individual's Khudâ into that of the Ummah. ‘All«mah Iqb«l designates this as Bekhudâ. He has discussed this in his other book Rumuz- i-Bekhudâ (The Mysteries of Selflessness). This book is complementary to Asr«r-i-Khudâ and transcends, by far, the boundaries indicated by its name. It is a treatise on the plan and constitution of the Islamic State on the basis of the Holy Qur'«n and Aé«dâth. Even a summary of this book is not possible in this chapter. However, the concepts contained in it are repeatedly stated in his other books including B«ng-i-Dar« and will be pointed out in the translation and commentary at the appropriate places.
The erroneous concept created by Waédat al-Wujëd and the correct one offered by Islam are summed up in the first and the second verse respectively as follows:
(143) You want God as well as this base world
This is wishful thinking, difficult, insanity
(144) What is worldliness, to become heedless of God
Not clothes, wealth, children and spouse
Rëmâ
It will be seen from the foregoing that the prescription for developing Khudâ is the same as that of Islam. In that sense it completes the argument that the potential of Man for full development cannot be attained by any method except accepting Islam as one's way of life and submission of one's will to the Will of God.
It is anomalous as well as unfortunate that the concept of Khudâ, the strongest pillar of ‘All«mah Iqb«l’s philosophy, should also become the focus of strongest criticism. This criticism is based on two misunderstandings. The first misunderstanding is the concept of Fatalism, which is an offshoot of the theory of Waédat al-Wujëd. Under the influence of this theory many later Sëfâs, specially those in Persia and India held fast to the notion that a person could not obtain the knowledge of and proximity to God without divorcing all material worldly objects including one's own person. The latter meant annihilation of the self. The whole discipline of this is nothing short of asceticism, which the Holy Qur’«n and the Holy Prophet S.A.W. have categorically condemned. In spite of this most Sëfâ literature of the Persian and Indian origin insists on annihilation of the "self" and renunciation of all material objects for attaining the Pleasure of God and attaining His proximity. The "self" is mistakenly taken to be an equal of and contender with God, which must be eliminated for attaining His Ma`rifat and proximity. The concept that the "self" was a potential gift of God which could be used profitably, through suitable training and discipline to obtain the best of both worlds remained foreign to their intellects. ‘All«mah Iqb«l realized this and has clearly stated that the present degenerated condition of the Muslim Ummah was in the greatest measure due to distancing itself from the efforts to develop the "self " in the service of God and Man. A little study of and contemplation on the two books discussed here would show that the concept of Khudâ is closer to Islam than that of Fatalism. This matter has been discussed by specialists in Iqb«lics and may be studied by those anxious to do so. Space does not permit giving examples from his works. However, they exist in B«ng-i-Dar« and have been referred to in the translation and commentary at appropriate places.
5. Controversy of `Aql O Dil (Intellect and Heart or Intuition) 'Aql and Dil are used metaphorically for Intellect and Intuition respectively. The controversy of the relative efficacy of these two means of knowing the Truth about the Wujëd (Existence) and the Z«t (Essence) of God and His relationship with the Universe, both material and spiritual, has always existed in human thinking. Search for an acceptable compromise in the controversy of the precedence of one system over the other was one of the aims and purposes of ‘All«mah Iqb«l's life-long fervent struggle in intellectual pursuits. This theme comes up frequently in all his books, including B«ng-i-Dar«. It is, therefore, necessary to clarify his stand in this matter in order to understand such poems. ‘All«mah Iqb«l has used 'Aql, Khirad, D«nish (Intellect), ‘Ilm (Knowledge), Takhmân O Zan (Reasoning and Logical Thinking) synonymously for ways of acquiring the knowledge of the material Universe. The ways depending upon the above faculties are the material ways of experimentation and reasoning. Similarly, he has used Dil, Jigar (Heart), Wajd«n (Intuition, Love of God), Im«n (Faith, Belief in the realities of the Unseen or Transcendental Universe, based on Revelation, i.e. Kashf, Ilh«m, with climax in waéy) synonymously for the means of acquiring knowledge of the spiritual Universe.
Some critics of ‘All«mah Iqb«l have expressed the opinion that there is contradiction in his poetic and prose works regarding the relative role of Intuition and Intellect with respect to Muslims. This apparent contradiction can be resolved by a little contemplation. Firstly, such apparent contradictions are frequent in his writings on other subjects also. In each such case the appreciation for or condemnation of the same object or concept is with reference to the good and bad categories of the same. For example, he has shown very great appreciation and reverence for Sëfâs like Mujaddid Alf Th«nâ (Appendix I, No. 57), ‘Alâ Bin ‘Uthm«n al-Hujwârâ (Appendix I, No. 8) and Mawl«n« Rëmâ (Appendix I, No. 65) and the taÅawwuf they represent. At the same time he has expressed frustration at the people's intellectual slavery to the half baked Sëfâs and Mull«hs "with empty flagons" and devoid of the Longing and Love of God as well as that of humanity. Similarly, he has expressed very great respect as well as disdain for faqr in B«l-i-Jibrâl. This matter has been discussed earlier under Faqr.
Similarly, in the matter of the controversy of Intellect and Intuition he has recognized two different situations in one of which Intellect gets precedence over Intuition and in the other the precedence is reversed. He has also talked about two kinds of Intellect. One of these is acceptable, though it may or may not get precedence over Intuition, and the other is unquestionably detestable. In this context it must be understood that he has set two goals for the Muslim Ummah. One is the immediate but interim goal. This is the renaissance and rejuvenation of the Muslim world and Muslim society so that it may regain its lost position in the world community. Though the dual task of inner reconstruction and outer adjustment to the changed conditions of the present day world, which are the prerequisites for this goal, require Intuition as well as Intellect, the latter has precedence over the former. This is the central theme of his prose book titled "The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam" (Appendix III, No. 27). The second and the more important task before the Ummah and, in fact its very mission, is the establishment and administration of a super-national Divinely guided State, which can be called the Islamic State. The Ummah was created and Divinely commissioned for this purpose, vide The Holy Qur’«n 3:110; 9:32, 33; 48:28; and 61:9, and the Holy Prophet's S.A.W. Sermon at the last pilgrimage (Appendix IV). This forms the theme, and in fact the goal of all his poetic works.
The inner preparation and superb perseverance necessary for achieving this goal is not possible with Intellect alone. It requires the real and ardent Love of God, which is the basis for and is synonymous with Im«n or Intuition. Unswerving belief in and comprehension of the Wujëd as well as the dh«t of God it is essential for developing this inner or spiritual strength, which alone would enable Muslims to make the supreme sacrifices necessary for the attainment of this goal. Out of six qualities stated by Mawl«na Rëmâ, which establish the precedence of Intuition over Intellect the following two stand out as pre-eminent in this respect (Appendix III, No. 1, Chapter V, Love):
i. It is not possible to know the dh«t of the Ultimate Being (God) through Theoretical Reasoning alone. This needs Intuition. "Reason is the Light and Guide, but not the goal", says Rëmâ. ‘All«mah Iqb«l echoes the same sentiment:
(145) The Intellect from the threshold is not far
But it is not destined for the (Divine) Presence
(Appendix III, No. 29)
(146) The end of Intellect is deprivation from Audience with the Essence
Philosophy is synonymous with distancing from the Life’s essence
(Appendix III, No. 32)
(147) Dân the organization of the path of life is
Dân the Secret of Muéammad and Ibr«hâm is
(Appendix III , No. 32)
ii. Intellect is utilitarian and weighs profit and loss before taking a step. Love is not utilitarian. ‘All«mah Iqb«l also confirms this:
(148) Intellect is matured through Prudence
Love is rendered immature by Prudence
(149) Love jumped into Nimrëd’s 13 fire without fear
Intellect is still watching the spectacle on the roof with fear
(Appendix III, No. 25)
The second category of Intellect is the one which has led mankind away from God and into the arms of materialism, capitalism and nationalist-imperialism. The havoc played by the Western nations against defenseless humanity throughout the world over the last three centuries is well known and does not need elaboration. This is the class of Intellect which ‘All«mah Iqb«l considers worthy of condemnation to the gallows. When the ‘All«mah could not tolerate this state of affairs any more he cried out:
(150) The West's tyrannies have laid all world a desolate waste
O £aram's architect rise to retrieve the world from this waste
(Appendix III, No. 26)
Attention is also invited to Appendix III, No. 26, page 27, for a sample of All«mah Iqb«l's views on this category of Intellect. In addition he says:
(151) Unbridled thought, if Intellect is immature
Is method of converting Man into a beast
(Appendix III, No. 32)
6. Political Ideology It is not possible to cover the all encompassing political ideology of ‘All«mah Iqb«l in this chapter. I have already outlined some aspects of it earlier. I have briefly described his concept of Dân being the basis of the State. In this chapter I shall go into his thoughts about Waèan (homeland) and Qawm (nationality) as these matters have been discussed in B«ng-i-Dar«. Several other poems are included in this book in which ‘All«mah Iqb«l has expressed his love for India and its past and present heroes, and has shown frustration at the constant strained relations between the Muslims and the Hindus, who formed the two major nations in India. These poems have created some misunderstanding about his political ideology. Opinion has been expressed by some responsible persons that he was initially an Indian nationalist and was only swept away by the "separatist politics of the Muslim League" into what the Indian Hindus call "communalism". The fallacy of this erroneous judgment reflects complete ignorance of his works and thought as well as the basics of Islam.
‘All«mah Iqb«l was a patriot with great admiration for India, its landscapes and its great personalities, both past and present. He sincerely desired, not only political independence for India from Britain, but also its freedom from the economic, cultural and value systems of the West. His earliest poems reflect these ideas. He was also aware of the class based Brahmanic Hindu society and expressed his revulsion for it in poem 126 titled "N«nak" in B«ng-i-Dar«. In this poem he has shown great respect for Gautam Buddha and Guru N«nak for their revolt against the Brahmanic Hindu society, which divides humanity into superior and inferior classes on the basis of birth and lineage. This was contradictory to the Islamic concept of the Unity of mankind (Holy Qur«n 49:13). For Buddha and N«nak see Appendix I, Nos. 29 and 60 respectively.
In spite of ‘All«mah Iqb«l's desire for an independent India, unlike his Hindu compatriots, he was fully alive to the reality that India's independence would always remain a mirage without Hindu-Muslim amity and presentation of an agreed upon united front to Britain. It was also obvious to him that India's independence would be meaningless to the Muslims if they were held as slaves and untouchables in their own land. He could not expect justice and fair play from the society described in the poem "N«nak" mentioned above. With these ends in view he not only preached Hindu-Muslim amity in his poems like poem 43 "Niya Shiw«lah" (The New Temple) in B«ng-i-Dar« but incessantly worked for such amity. He also realized that the under-privileged position of the Indian Muslims in their own country, and the intransigence of the Hindus in coming to an amenable solution with them, was in no small way due to the schisms among Muslims themselves. Consequently, he spent all his poetic and political skills and efforts in reconstructing and consolidating the Muslim political thought and effort and left no stone unturned for uniting Indian Muslims into one solid body by assembling them on the platform of the Muslim League under its banner.
As early as 1911 "The Report on the Census of India 1911" includes reference to a lecture by ‘All«mah Iqb«l on Indian Muslims in which he had urged the creation of a separate Muslim homeland in India as the only guarantee for the preservation of Islam in the subcontinent. At that time he had declared, "All men, and not Muslims alone, are meant for the 'Kingdom of God on Earth', provided they say good-bye to the idols of race and nationality, and treat one another as personalities". This sentence has the rudiments of his thought that the basis for a nation and State could not be geographical boundaries but ideology.
He also realized that before the Muslims could accomplish this task in the present day world the religious thought in the Muslim world itself needed to be reconstructed. He endeavored to do this in his famous book The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam (1930) (Appendix III, No. 27). This book, consisting of six lectures delivered by him in Madras and at Aligarh about 1930, was an attempt to reconstruct Muslim religious philosophy with due regard to the philosophical traditions of Islam and the recent developments in human knowledge. This book embodies his mature formulation of moral, social and political philosophy. The important pillars of this thought are:
(i) Dynamism in thought and action
(ii) Re-shaping the teachings of the Sëfâs on the role of Intuition in the process of acquiring knowledge
(iii) Enunciation of the concept of the Fard-i-K«mil or "The Perfect Man"
(iv) Condemnation of the ascetic sëfism of the kind which preached renunciation of the world as necessary for salvation and
(v) Ijtih«d which had to be collective Ijtih«d so as to reflect the feelings of the whole Muslim Ummah and safeguard its interests.
In a way this book constitutes the basis of his social and political philosophy and mission.
Simultaneously ‘All«mah Iqb«l transcended the bounds of political and religious theory and played an active role in the politics of the Indian subcontinent. He was also very active in the politics of his native province of Punjab as well as in the national field. The landmark contribution of ‘All«mah Iqb«l to the cause of the Muslims and Islam was the first formal presentation of the Pakistan plan in his presidential address to the All-India Muslim League at Allahabad in 1930.
In the very beginning of the twentieth century he realized that the secular nationalism of the West as a political thought was contrary to the spirit of Islam. This concept started in Europe as a protest against the combined atrocities of the autocratic "Holy Roman Empire (962-1806)" and the theocracy of the Roman Catholic Church. It has been explained earlier that this movement had resulted from the general awakening in Central Europe during the Reformation and Renaissance, which in its turn had been sparked by the creed of freedom started by the Muslim society in Islamic Spain. It was kept alive later by the British pursuing their policy of "Balance of Power" which was directed against the Napolean's Empire and later the Austro-Hungarian Empire (1867-1918) in Europe. Feelings of secular and geographical nationalism were also nurtured and supported in the Christian dominated provinces of the Ottoman Khil«fah to break it up. All these efforts succeeded in Europe. In India, however, the situation was very different. Space does not permit to go into its details, for which reference is invited to ‘Ishrat (1993-94) for details.
During his stay in England and Germany in 1905-08 ‘All«mah Iqb«l realized the evils of secular nationalism and the machinations of Europeans against Muslims and Islam. This, coupled with his vast and deep study of Islam, convinced him of the urgent need for propagating the super-national ideal of Islam. He devoted the rest of his life to achieve this goal. For details of his political philosophy and the evils of secular nationalism as a political philosophy see poem 85 "Wataniyyat" (Nationalism) in B«ng-i-Dar« which appears later in this book and was written during the early period, about 1908.
Thus, ‘All«mah Iqb«l was a patriot but he never accepted secular nationalism as a political philosophy for Muslims. Far from being swayed by the "separatism of the Muslim League" he guided the Muslim intelligentsia and the Muslim League towards the goal of Muslim homeland in the Indian subcontinent. In this homeland an Islamic State was to be established which would be the nucleus for the ultimate creation of a super-national Islamic State or a "League of Islamic Nations". Clearly, his aim was Hindu-Muslim amity to speed up India's independence which would be the precursor of the independence of the Muslim world. Will the Muslims all over the world, and particularly in Pakistan rise up to his expectations or will face his testifying against them on the Day of Judgment (The Holy Qur’«n 2:143).
Explanatory Notes
1. Hegel- See Appendix I, No. 38.
2.Sayyidina ‘¥s« A.S- See Appendix I, No. 44.
3. In our opinion the Islamic civilization would have attained much higher goals than the Western philosophy, science and technology. This is so because of the difference of approach of both. Western science visualizes a universe which has been created by the 'Big Bang' which was just an accident with an unknown cause. The universe and all its animate and inanimate components are operating under a set of immutable physical laws. No purpose or objective is ascribed to their creation or operation and there is no concept of a creator or operator. As opposed to this the Islamic teaching, as already stated earlier, visualizes a universe whose components are interlinked into a rationally organized whole, which has been created by a Creator who is also reigning over it and operating it. It is not eternal but ephemeral and will be abolished or changed into another completely different universe. ‘All«mah Iqb«l hints at this thought as follows:
(152) Why should I ask the wise men as to what is my beginning
As I am always concerned as to what my destiny is !
(153) If that Western sage had been alive at this time
Iqb«l would have shown to him what God's status is
— The famous German philosopher Nietzsche
(Appendix III, No. 29)
Though the universe is operating under a set of rules, usually unchanging, the Creator has the power and the authority of making changes in its operation. Such changes are called miracles. The Holy Qur’«n has many verses about one or more of the above attributes of God. However, verse 2:255 is a very comprehensive one. According to the Holy Qur'«n only Man out of the creation of God is endowed with free will and ethical feelings which give him the understanding of the difference between right and wrong. God has provided complete guidance to the whole human race through Divine revelations and the efforts of His good men whose life and work are the beacons of light for the guidance of mankind on the path of righteousness. An important part of the Qur'«nic concept is the Last Day when this universe, as we know it, will be changed into something very different and all mankind will be called upon to explain their deeds during their life on earth. This accountability is a direct and logical result of the free will and guidance provided to Man. This concept of accountability is the core concept of all religions, including the final and most highly evolved religion, i.e. Islam. Love of God and the love of mankind is also an essential component of religion. The Holy Qur'«n appeals repeatedly to mankind to understand the signs of God in the Universe and in Man himself as proof of the existence of a Supreme Being, i.e. God and to follow the path of righteousness to win His pleasure. That is the real ‘Ib«dah of God. The Holy Qur'«n goes a step further to establish and maintain the dignity of the human race by designating him the masterpiece of God's creation. In this capacity he is restrained from showing allegiance to any person, object, phenomenon or ideology, because they are all created like Man. Man being the masterpiece of creation is prohibited from bowing to or showing allegiance to any one except God. All systems, secular or religious which require, or even permit Man's allegiance to other created objects are a bane to humanity. The Godless Western system also requires Man's allegiance, however subtle, to sources of material gain. In that respect it drags down the human race from its elegant status of the masterpiece of creation to one of subservience to all and sundry. ‘All«mah Iqb«l has presented this concept in the following two very eloquent verses:
(154) This one prostration which to you irksome is
Freedom to Man from a thousand prostrations is !
( Appendix III, No.32)
(155) Only that prostration worthy of respect is
Which denying all other prostrations to you is
(Appendix III, No. 29)
It is obvious from the foregoing that if the Muslim civilization had continued on its original path it would have succeeded in establishing a civilization much superior in knowledge, science and technology to any we know. Above all this civilization would have elevated Man to the position he deserved.
4. Aémad This is another name of the Holy Prophet S.A.W. . Another view is that this is an allusion to Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindâ, Mujaddid Alf Th«nâ.
5. P«zand This is the name of the holy book of the Parsâs .
6. L« Il«ha This is the abbreviation for the Muslim Kalimah- i-tawéâd, i.e. "La Il«ha Illall«h u Muéammad al- Rasël Allah".
7. Khaibar's Conqueror with Barley's Bread This alludes to ‘Alâ R.A., his conquest of the Jewish Fort of Khaibar and the fact that he used to eat bread of barley for lack of money. This did not reduce his prowess or strength. See Appendix I, No. 7.
8. Badr-O-Hunain- These are two very decisive battles in the early history of Islam. Badr was the first battle between the newly formed Muslim Ummah in Madâna Munawwarah and the pagan Quraish. It was critical in that it established the political credibility of Muslims. The battle of Hunain was fought immediately after the conquest of Makkah Mu‘ïïamah. This battle also was decisive in the sense that the Muslims were almost defeated on account of their pride and reliance on their arms and numbers instead of their Faith and the truth of their mission. Ultimately the Muslims won the battle and this completed the sovereignty of the Islamic State over the entire Arabian Peninsula.
9. £usain- Im«m £usain R.A. for whom see Appendix I, No. 39.
10. Masâé- Reference toS. ‘¥s« A.S. for whom see Appendix I, No. 44.
11. Kalâm- Reference to S. Mës« A.S. for whom see Appendix I, No. 48.
12. Shabbâr- This is another name of Im«m Hussain R.A. for whom see Appendix I, No. 39. "Shabbârâ" is his attributes.
13. Namrëd- This alludes to the Holy Qur’«n 21:51-69. Namrëd was the king who is traditionally believed to have ordered the casting of Ibr«hâm A.S. into the fire. According to ‘All«mah ‘Abd Allah Yësuf ‘Alâ (Appendix III, No 8, Note 1565) Namrëd reigned over the tract which includes the 'Namrëd' on the Tigris River, about 32 km. south of Mosul.
14.Waéâd ‘Ishrat (1993-94) Iqb«l aur Jamhëriyat English Translation by M.A.K. Khalâl. Published in Iqb«l Review Vol. 34, No.3, pp.69-104 and Vol.35, No.1; pp 19-60.
PREFACE
BY
SIR `ABD AL-QÿDIR, BARRISTER AT LAW,
EDITOR "MAKHZAN"
No one knew that after the late Gh«lib, some one would rise in India who would again inspire Urdu poetry with a new spirit and through whom the matchless imagination and the rare imagery of Gh«lib would be created anew and would lead to the glorification of the Urdu literature. However, Urdu was fortunate in getting a poet of Iqb«l's caliber, the superiority of whose literary elegance has impressed the Urdu knowing people of the whole of India and whose reputation has spread to Iran, Asia Minor and even to Europe.
Gh«lib and Iqb«l share many common characteristics. If I were a believer in the transmigration of soul I would have certainly said that the love which Mirza Asad Allah Kh«n Gh«lib had for Urdu and Persian poetry did not allow his soul to rest in peace even in the Elysium and compelled him to re-appear in another material form to render service to poetry, and was re-born in a corner of Punjab, called Sialkot and was called Muéammad Iqb«l.
The respected father and the affectionate mother of Shaikh Muéammad Iqb«l must have proposed his name at a very auspicious time, as the name given by them proved to be appropriate in all its connotations, and their successful son proceeded to England after completing his education in India. On achieving his educational goals at Cambridge he went to Germany and returned home, equipped with the highest intellectual achievements. Shaikh Muéammad Iqb«l studied many Persian books during his stay in Europe and published the results of his studies in the form of a research publication, which should be considered a short history of the Iranian philosophy. The Germans (the University of Munich) conferred upon Shaikh Muéammad Iqb«l the degree of Ph.D. on the basis of this book. The British Government, which does not have adequate direct access to the oriental languages and learning, took a long time to realize the universal appreciation of Iqb«l's poetry, but eventually patronized him by conferring the exalted honor of Knighthood. Though he is now known as Dr. Sir Muéammad Iqb«l which has the God-given quality of being the real as well the pen name, is better known and liked than his doctorate and Knighthood.
There is a college in Sialkot where a renowned scholar, Mawlawâ Saiyyid Mâr £asan2, who is memorable heir to and a follower of the oriental scholars of former times, teaches oriental learning. Recently he has been honored by the Government with the title of Shams al ‘Ulem« 3 . The characteristic quality of his teaching is creation of the right taste for Persian and Arabic in the personality of his pupils. Iqb«l was also fortunate in getting a teacher like Sayyid Mâr £asan in his youth. Iqb«l’s temperament had a natural inclination for literature. Learning Persian and Arabic from such a teacher added to its elegance. He started writing poetry as early as his school age. By then Urdu had become so popular in Punjab that the language and its poetry had spread to more or less every city. During the student days of Shaikh Muéammad Iqb«l a small mush«’irah used to be convened in Sialkot for which Iqb«l began writing ghazals occasionally. Naw«b Mirz« Kh«n Ö«hib D«gh of Delhi had gained much renown as an Urdu poet in those days, and this increased considerably when he became the tutor of the Niz«m of Dakkan4. Those who could not go to him would establish tutorial relationship from afar by mail. Ghazals were sent to him by mail and he returned them the same way after correction. In the olden days when such a mailing service did not exist a poet could not get so many pupils. With this facility hundreds of people had established discipleship with him in absentia and he had to maintain a department with staff for this purpose. Shaikh Muéammad Iqb«l also established communication with him and sent some ghazals for correction. In this way Iqb«l established a relationship in Urdu with a literateur who, in his days, was considered unique in the art of linguistic excellence in the field of ghazal. Though Iqb«l's ghazals of that early period did not have the attributes which made his later works very famous, D«gh discerned the beginning of an extra-ordinary writer in this student from a remote Punjab district. Very soon he pronounced his verdict of the absence of scope for improvement in Iqb«l's poetry and this tutorial relationship did not last long. However, its memories remained on both sides. D«gh's name is so prominent in Urdu poetry that Iqb«l has respect even for this short period and in absentia relationship; and Iqb«l had attained that high approbation even in the life-time of D«gh that the latter was proud of considering Iqb«l among the people whose poetry he had corrected. I had the good fortune of meeting D«gh in the Dakkan and I am a witness to such expressions of pride by him.
As the Sialkot College was up to the F.A.5 Shaikh Muéammad Iqb«l had to move to Lahore for his B.A. He wanted to study philosophy and he got a very affectionate professor among those at Lahore, who discerned Iqb«l's inclination towards philosophy and started taking special interest in his education. Professor Arnold6 who is now (1924) Sir Thomas Arnold and is in England, is a man of extra-ordinary capabilities, is a proficient writer and is well-versed in the new methods of academic investigation and research. He wanted to impart his perceptions and procedures to his pupil and he succeeded in this to a very large extent. Earlier, he had been able to create maturity in the_intellectual perceptions of his friend, the late Mawl«n« Shiblâ 7 during the period of his professorship at the Aligarh College. Now he discovered another gem to convert which into a shining star became his heart-felt desire. The mutual friendship and affection created in the heart of the teacher and his pupil in the very beginning ultimately resulted in the latter proceeding to England in the wake of his teacher. This relationship was further strengthened there and has endured till the present day (1924). Arnold is happy at the fruition of his labor and at his pupil being a source of pride and fame for him in the intellectual world. Iqb«l acknowledges that the perceptions created by Saiyyid Mâr £asan, and advanced in the interim by the in absentia mutual acquaintance with D«gh, attained their climax with the affectionate guidance of Arnold.
Iqb«l got very good guides in passing through his intellectual journey, and became acquainted with several renowned scholars. Distinguished among these are Drs. McTaggart, Brown, Nicholson and Sorley 8 of the University of Cambridge 8. Professor Nicholson deserves our special gratitude for his efforts at introducing Iqb«l to Europe and America by translating his famous Persian book, Asr«r-i-Khudâ (The Secrets of the Self) into English and for providing a preface and commentary to the same. In the same way Iqb«l maintained liaison through correspondence and personal contact with all the shining stars of India's intellectual horizon at that time, such as Mawl«n« Shiblâ, Mawl«n« £«lâ 9 and Akbar10. They continued influencing Iqb«l's writings and Iqb«l continued influencing their thought. Mawl«n« Shiblâ, in his many letters, and the revered Akbar, in his letters as well as in poems have acknowledged Iqb«l’s accomplishments. Similarly, Iqb«l has eulogized these eminent personalities in his works.
Discounting the period of early practice Iqb«l's Urdu poetry starts a little before the commencement of the twentieth century. I saw him first in a mush«’irah in Lahore two or three years before 1901. He had been prevailed upon by some of his class-mates to participate in this mush«’arah and recite a ghazal. People of Lahore had not known Iqb«l till then. The ghazal was a short one with simple words and thought but had humor and spontaneity due to which it was much appreciated. He participated in this mush«’irah two or three times again and people discerned in him the makings of a promising poet. However, this fame at first remained confined to the students of the colleges of Lahore and those engaged in educational pursuits. Meanwhile a literary association had been established which was attended by celebrities, and created a demand for prose as well as poetry. Shaikh Muéammad Iqb«l recited his poem addressing the Himalayas, called "Him«l«" in one of its meetings. This poem combined the English thought with the Persian elegance of style, and had the added beauty of the flavor of nationalism. As it conformed with the tastes and the needs of the times it was widely appreciated, and requests for its publication started pouring in. But Shaikh Iqb«l took it away with him with the excuse of the need for review, and it could not be published then. Shortly after this I planned to start the magazine Makhzan for the advancement of Urdu literature. By this time I had developed friendly relations with Shaikh Muéammad Iqb«l. I obtained his promise to contribute his new style poems for publication in the poetry section of this magazine. About the time of the appearance of the magazine's first issue I went to ask him for a poem. He said that he did not have any poem ready at that time. I asked him to give me the poem titled, "Him«l«" and to write another poem for the next month. He was reluctant to give that poem because he considered it to be in need of improvement. As I had noticed its extreme popularity I prevailed upon him to give it to me and I published it in Makhzan, Volume 1, No. 1, which appeared in April 1901. This was, as it were, the beginning of the public appearance of Iqb«l's Urdu poetry, and this continued till his departure for England in 1905. During this period he wrote a poem for every issue of Makhzan. As the news of his poetry spread far and wide requests started coming in from diverse magazines and newspapers. Associations and conferences also started requesting him to benefit the audiences of their annual meetings with his poetry.
The Shaikh having completed his education, had become a professor at the Government College, Lahore. He spent his time continuously in intellectual company and academic pursuits. With a surging intellect and extreme inspiration, when inclined towards versification, he could produce innumerable verses in a single sitting. Absorbed in his thoughts he would pour out verses, and his friends and some students who might be nearby, would write them down with paper and pencil. In those days I never saw him with pen and paper in linguistic pursuits. Writing poetry looked like a surging river or a bubbling spring of appropriate words with a unique condition of ecstatic softness engulfing him. He would himself recite his verses melodiously, would become ecstatic himself as well as would turn others ecstatic. He is remarkably singular in having such a memory that all the verses constituting a continuous poem, would be safe in his memory in the same order at another time and on another day, although he had not written them down in the interim. I have been fortunate enough to avail of the opportunity of the companionship of many poets and, though I have heard and seen some of them producing poetry, I have not seen his style in any of them. Iqb«l has the other peculiarity of being unable to produce "made to order" poetry in spite of all this poetic disposition. When poetically inclined he can produce as many verses as he likes but it is almost impossible for him to produce anything "to order" on any occasion. For this reason, on being famous and on becoming flooded with requests, he had to deny most of them. Similarly, he would usually pass requests for participation in associations and assemblies. Only the Anjuman-i-Him«yat-i-Isl«m of Lahore, for several reasons, had the privilege of Iqb«l's continued participation for several years and recitation of the poem which would be written for that very meeting after prior thought.
In the early days the poems presented in public meetings were recited without melody, which had its own charm. However, in one public meeting some friends insisted that Shaikh Muéammad Iqb«l read his poem melodiously. His voice is loud and pleasing by nature and he is fully conversant with the style of melody. It threw the audience in spell-bound silence and ecstasy. This produced two results. One was that it made it difficult for him to recite without melody, and when he recites people insist on melodious recital. The other is that, whereas formerly only the select understood and appreciated his poetry, this magnet attracted the general populace also. In the meetings of the Anjuman-i-Him«yat-Isl«m at Lahore tens of thousands of people assemble when Iqb«l's poem is recited and they are spell-bound during the entire recital. Those who understand him and those who do not are equally absorbed.
The second period of his poetry extended from 1905 to 1908 which he spent in Europe. Though he got comparatively little time there for poetry, and only a few poems were written during that stay, they exhibit a special style, based on his observations there. Two major changes occurred in his thinking at that time. For two of these three years I was also living there and had the opportunity of meeting him frequently. One day Shaikh Muéammad Iqb«l told me that he had firmly decided to abandon poetry, to avow never to write verse, and use the time he would spend on poetry on some other productive pursuit. I told him that his poetry was not such as should be abandoned. On the other hand his poetry had the potential of curing the malady of our backward nation and unfortunate country. Hence it would be inappropriate to waste such a useful Divinely bestowed capability. The Shaikh had only half consented, and it was agreed to leave the final decision to Mr. Arnold's opinion. The Shaikh was to change his opinion if Mr. Arnold would agree with me and the reverse would be the case if he agreed with the Shaikh. I consider it the good fortune of the intellectual world that Mr. Arnold agreed with me. So it was decided that abandoning poetry was not proper for Iqb«l, and that any time spent on this work would be equally useful to him and to his country and nation. The first change which had occurred in our poet ended like this. The second change started with a small beginning and led to an important end, i.e. Persian replaced Urdu as the vehicle for propagation of Iqb«l's message.
Iqb«l's inclination towards Persian must have been motivated by several factors, but I think his literature study while writing his book on the state of taÅawwuf must have been an important one of these. Beside this, as his studies stepped into the deep recesses of philosophy, leading to desire for the expression of subtle thoughts , he appreciated the paucity of the Urdu vocabulary compared with that of Persian; and in fact ready made phraseology existed in Persian the equivalent of which would not be easy in Urdu. So he changed to Persian. However, outwardly, the small incident which led him to Persian language is that once he was invited to a friend's house where he was asked whether he wrote Persian verse and was requested to recite his Persian poetry. He had to admit that he had never tried to write in Persian except an odd verse. But this was such an occasion, and this request so moved him, that on return from the party perhaps he passed the rest of the night lying in bed and framing Persian verse. Getting up next morning when he met me he had two Persian ghazals ready, which he recited to me orally from memory. His potential for writing in Persian dawned upon him through these ghazals, the like of which he had not tried before. Later, on his return from England, his inclination turned towards Persian, though he continued to write Urdu poetry also occasionally. This is the third stage of his poetry, which has continued since 1908. Though many famous Urdu poems have been produced during this period the really important work to which he applied himself was his famous Persian mathnavâ titled Asr«r-i-Khudâ (The Secrets of the Self) (1915). Its thoughts revolved in his mind for a long time till, at last, they started being transferred from his mind to paper, and ultimately appeared as a book which made Iqb«l famous even outside India.
Todate (1924) Iqb«l has produced three books in Persian, viz. Asr«r-i-Khudâ (1915), Rumëz-i-Bekhudâ (The Mysteries of Selflessness) (1915) and Pay«m-i-Mashriq (The Message of the East) (1923), all of which are superb. The language is progressively simpler and easier from the first through the second to the third. Lovers of Iqb«l's Urdu poetry may have been disappointed by the appearance of these Persian books, but they must remember that Persian accomplished what Urdu could not. Iqb«l's works have reached the entire Muslim world where Persian is more or less current, and they contain the depth of thought which needed much wide-spread propagation. It also constituted the means of acquainting the Europeans and Americans with our worthy author. In Pay«m-i-Mashriq the author has written a reply to a very eminent European poet, Goethe's "Sal«m-i-Maghrib"12 (The Compliments of the West) and he has very beautifully expressed very highly philosophical thoughts. Its verses have solved some very intricate enigmas which had never been explained in such easy terms before. Since a long time some magazines and newspapers are referring to Dr. Muéammad Iqb«l with the title of "Tarjum«n-i-Haqâqat" (The Interpreter of the Truth). The appropriate verses of this book establish his right to be known by this title, and whoever ascribed this title to him first committed no exaggeration.
Iqb«l's Persian writings have influenced his Urdu poetry in the manner that the Urdu poems of the third period have even more Persian form and elegance of style than the earlier ones and have sometimes been based upon Persian verses. It appears as if Persian thought is being assiduously goaded into Urdu.
Many people have been calling for the publication of Iqb«l's Urdu poetry which has appeared periodically in magazines and newspapers since 1901. His friends were constantly demanding publication of his Urdu poetry, but this publication had been delayed for several reasons. Thank God for the fulfillment of this long-standing wish of the lovers of Urdu poetry, which has led to the publication of this collection of Iqb«l's Urdu poems, comprising 336 pages, divided into three parts. Part one includes poems up to 1905, part two those of the period 1905 to 1908 and part three has the Urdu poetry since 1908. It can be claimed that up till now there is no book of Urdu poetry with such an abundance of thought and such a combination of research and intrinsic qualities. This is as was to be expected, because the book is the essence of a quarter century of study, research and observation, and the experience from world-wide traveling. Single verses and hemistichs of some poems contain material requiring the space of a dissertation for explaining the thought. This short preface does not have the capacity of a critique of any poem or comparison between poems of different periods. I shall look for some other opportunity for this work. At present I want to congratulate the literateur on the availability of the Urdu works of Iqb«l in the form of a beautiful book instead of being spread over the pages of magazines and anthologies. It is hoped that those who were anxious to see this literary collection would view it with fondness and cordial appreciation.
In closing, on behalf of Urdu poetry, I would request the learned author to endow Urdu with the share from his intellect, which it needs and deserves. He has himself painted the correct picture of the state of Urdu in a verse of eulogy of Gh«lib as follows:
(156) The lock of Urdu's hair still some combing craves
This candle still for the heart-burning of a moth craves
After reciting this verse we request him to pay attention again to adorning the hair of Urdu with the same ardor with which he produced the above verse, and afford us the opportunity of regarding this present collection of Urdu of belated appearance to be the prelude to another Urdu collection13.
Explanatory Notes
1. Gh«lib- See Appendix I, No. 31.
2. Saiyyid Mâr £asan- See Appendix I, No. 55.
3. Shams al `Ulam«- ‘The Sun of Scholars’. This was a title bestowed upon eminent oriental scholars in India during the British rule.
4. Niï«m- Ruler of the State of Haiderabad Dakkan under the British rule in India.
5. F.A.- Fellow of Arts diploma, equivalent to a Junior College , which covers the first two years of a four-year under-graduate program of post-secondary education.
6. Arnold- See Appendix I, No. 11.
7. Shiblâ- See Appendix I, No. 72
8. They are four renowned orientalists at the Cambridge University at the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century. Pre-eminent among them is Professor Reynold A. Nicholson for whom see Appendix I, No. 61.
9. £«lâ- See Appendix I, No. 36.
10. Akbar- See Appendix I, No. 5.
11. Goethe- See Appendix I, No. 351.
12.Another and most popular name of this book is West-Oestliche Divan. See ‘All«mah Iqb«l's Preface to Pay«m-i-Mashriq.
13. We are happy and grateful to God for accepting the prayer of Sir ‘Abd al-Q«dir in that he enabled `All«mah Iqb«l to produce three more collections of Urdu poetry after B«ng-i-Dar«. They are B«l-i-Jibrâl (The Gabriel's Wings) (1923), Zarb-i-Kalâm (The Blow of Moses) (1936) and Armagh«n-i-£ij«z (The Gift For Hijaz) (1938).
THE HIMALAYAS
Introduction
This poem belongs to the first period of ‘All«mah Iqb«l's poetic and intellectual evolution, which ended at the time of his departure to Europe in 1905 for higher studies. This period is considered to be the period of ‘All«mah Iqb«l's nature poetry. "Him«lah" is the opening poem of B«ng-i-Dar«. It eulogizes the physical beauty and geographical importance of the Himalayan Range. Though mountains are equated with natural beauty all over the world, and the beauty of many mountain regions has been extolled by poets and other intellectuals alike, the Himalayas stand out as a shining star in the galaxy of the world's mountain ranges.
The Himalayas form an extensive mountain range which stretches across the northern side of the Indian sub-continent from Kashmâr to Assam, between the valleys of the Indus and Brahamaputra Rivers. It is bout 2,400 km. long and 160-240 km. wide and joins the Karakorums and the Hindu Kush Ranges. It is the highest mountain range in the world and includes some of the world's highest peaks, viz. Everest (8,847 m.), Kanchenjunga (8,579 m.), N«ng« Parbat (8,126 m.) Annapurna (8,078 m.), and Nand« Devi (7, 817 m.).
The word "Himalaya" is derived from the Sanskrit word "Himachal", meaning the "Abode of Snow". The name reflects the long range of permanently snow covered peaks, which are among the highest in the world and form a continuous wall of shimmering silver. Words cannot describe the beauty of this mountain range. It must be seen to be appreciated. "A hundred divine epochs would not suffice to describe the marvels of the Himalayas", says a Sanskrit proverb. For getting a glimpse of the beauty of the Himalayas see Appendix III, No. 46 which includes some breath taking photographs.
‘All«mah Iqb«l, a native of the Indo-Pakistan sub-continent was of Kashmâr origin. Kashmâr , which is a part of the Himalayan Range, and in itself is beauty par excellence, must have inspired him with a special love. However, his object in writing this poem was not merely to sing the praises of this mountain tract. Being an ‘«rif, the beauty of God's countenance as reflected in His creation had become manifest to his insight. He was moved by the beauty and the grandeur of the Himalayas. To him the Himalayas were one of the innumerable master pieces of the Creative Power and Artistry of God. To him it was one of the shuhëds of God's artistry, and a way of witnessing His Tajallâ-i-Öërâ. This feeling bursts out in verse 3. I myself had the good fortune of living and working in the sylvan beauty of the Himalayas for about twenty years of my life and of sharing the feelings of Sa‘dâ, when he says:
(158) The leaves of green trees in the wise man's perception
Every leaf is an encyclopedia of the Creator's cognition
(See Appendix I, No. 66 for Sa‘dâ)
Modern knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the plant leaf attests to these attributes.
Translation
O Himalah! O rampart of the realm of India!
Bowing down, the sky kisses your forehead
Your condition does not show any signs of old age
You are young in the midst of day and night's alternation 1
The Kalâm of ñër Sân« witnessed but one Effulgence
For the discerning eye you are an embodiment of Effulgence
To the outward eye you are a mere mountain range
In reality you are our sentinel, you are India's rampart
You are the diwan2 whose opening verse is the sky
You lead Man to the solitudes of his heart's retreat
Snow has endowed you with the turban of honour3
Which scoffs at the crown of the world-illuminating sun
Antiquity is but a moment of your bygone age
Dark clouds are encamped in your valleys
Your peaks are matching with the pleiades in elegance
Though you are standing on earth your abode is sky's expanse
The stream in your flank is a fast flowing mirror
For which the breeze is working like a kerchief
The mountain top's lightning has given a whip
In the hands of cloud for the ambling horse
O Himalah! Are you like a theater stage
Which nature's hand has made for its elements?
Ah! How the cloud is swaying in excessive joy
The cloud like an unchained elephant is speeding
Gentle movement of the morning zephyr is acting like a cradle
Every flower bud is swinging with intoxication of existence
The flower bud's silence with the petal's tongue is saying
"I have never experienced the jerk of the florist's hand
Silence itself is relating the tale of mine
The corner of nature's solitude is the abode of mine"
The brook is melodiously descending from the high land
Putting the waves of Kawthar4 and Tasnâm 4 to embarrassment
As if showing the mirror to Nature's beauty
Now evading now rowing against the rock in its way
Play in passing this orchestra of beautiful music
O wayfarer! The heart comprehends your music
When the night's Lailah unfurls her long hair
The sound of water-falls allures the heart
That silence of the night whose beauty surpasses speech
That state of silent meditation overshadowing the trees
That dusk's beauty which shivers along the mountain range
Very beautiful looks this rouge on your cheeks
O Himalah! Do relate to us some stories of the time
When your valleys became abode of Man's ancestors5
Relate something of the life without sophistication
Which had not been stained by the rouge of sophistication
O Imagination! Bring back that period
O Vicissitudes of Time speed backwards 6
Explanatory Notes
1. The alternation of the day and night is what produces time. This verse also alludes to the relative recentness of the Himalayas in terms of geological ages. This range came into existence 5-10 million years ago in the Pliocene epoch.
2. Diw«n- A book containing the poetical work especially ghazals , of a poet.
3. The successful completion of education in the institutions of higher learning in the Muslim world culminates in a turban being conferred on the scholar as an insignia of his academic degree. It corresponds with the cap and academic hood in the Western world.
4. Kawthar and Tasnâm- They are two fountains in Paradise. The name includes their streams also.
5. This refers to the antiquity of the Himalayas in archaeological times. Kashmir was an inhabited area at the time of the Indus Valley civilization in the third millennium B.C. (Appendix III, No. 11). It also alludes to the tradition that the Hindu sages wrote the Vedas in the Himalayas under the inspiration of its beauty.
6. This is an outpouring of the poet's heart in which he yearns for the revival of the Islamic civilization, of which the Asian civilization was a precursor and a part.
THE COLORFUL ROSE
Introduction:
Though outwardly this poem is a piece of "natural poetry" it contains, as is usual with ‘All«mah Iqb«l, his basic philosophy of Khudâ or the pre-eminence of Man in the God's creation. The poem says that though the beautiful rose, as an object of beauty in the creation of God, is "a joy for ever", it is devoid of the feelings of longing for comprehension of the Truth, which faculty is the gift of God specially endowed upon Man. Man should appreciate, enjoy and respect the beauty of the cosmos and should not create chaos therein by interfering with, abusing or damaging the same for satisfaction of his material needs. This longing, or the continuous search for the Truth created in the poet's heart, which in fact should exist in every Muslim's heart would eventually illuminate the world and would train the human intellect and guide it into spiritual channels instead of leaving it as an unbridled steed as at present.
Translation
You are not familiar with the hardships of solving enigmas
O Beautiful Rose! Perhaps you do not have sublime feelings in your heart
Though you adorn the assembly yet do not participate in its struggles
In life's assembly I am not endowed with this comfort
In this garden I am the complete orchestra of Longing1
And your life is devoid of the warmth of that Longing
To pluck you from the branch is not my custom
This sight is not different from the sight of the eye which can only see the appearances
Ah! O colorful rose this hand is not one of a tormentor
How can I explain to you that I am not a flower picker
I am not concerned with intricacies of the philosophic eye
Like a lover I see you through the nightingale's 2 eye
In spite of innumerable tongues 3 you have chosen silence
What is the secret which is concealed in your bosom?
Like me you are also a leaf from the garden of ñër
Far from the garden I am, far from the garden you are
You are content but scattered like fragrance I am
Wounded by the sword of love for search I am
This perturbation of mine a means for fulfillment could be
This torment a source of my intellectual illumination could be
This very frailty of mine the means of strength could be
This mirror of mine envy of the cup of J«m 4 could be
This constant search is a world-illuminating candle
And teaches to the steed of human intellect its gait 5
Explanatory Notes
1. "Longing" or ardent desire is one of the important planks of `All«mah Iqb«l’s philosophy. However, this longing is not for the material things of life or the satisfaction of physical desires, which is found in all living things. What distinguishes Man from other creation and entitles him to the honor of being God’s vicegerent on earth is the "longing" for more elegant goals and more sublime desires than mere indulgence in material pleasures. His longing is a limitless ocean of search for knowing the Truth and the Purpose of the creation of God, knowledge of His Essence, and fixing of high ideals for life, such as struggle in the cause of God. These thoughts exist throughout his works and many poems in this book also contain them. This "longing" is a part of the efforts for the cognition and development of the self, This is beautifully explained in his book Asr«r-i-Khudâ and has been explained by me in Chapter 3 under "Khudâ".
2. Bulbul, or Nightingale- This is a special Persian bird found in gardens and proverbially engaged in melodious music round flowers. It is imagined to be and is described as an ardent lover of flowers in Persian and Urdu literature, specially poetry. Figuratively, it means the point of view which, contrary to the discursive analysis, tries to look at the phenomena of beauty in its integral status and with reference to a manifestation of the Divine Beauty.
3. This alludes to the anatomy of the rose flower, whose petals are innumerable, look like tongues and also add to its beauty, which proclaims the artistry of its Creator in spite of the apparent silence of the flower.
4. J«m-i-Jam- This is the legendary cup of the Persian emperor J«m in which he could see whatever he wanted to see wherever he wanted to see, as if in a mirror.
5. This last stanza expresses ‘All«mah Iqb«l's strong hope that his present condition may be the means of attaining his objective which is described in the stanza.
THE AGE OF INFANCY
Introduction
Though outwardly dealing with the mundane subject of the age of infancy the main theme of this poem is that the search for the Truth and the beauty of the creation of God is one of the "Longings" bestowed on Man by Him. This faculty expresses itself from the very infancy. This is the way to learn the secrets of the universe as a step towards obtaining the knowledge of God from "Anfus -o-ÿf«q", which is also required by the Holy Qur’«n in numerous verses, such as 2:164; 3:190; 6:95-99; 10:5-6; 17:12; 30:20-27, 46; 36:37-41; 41: 36-37, 39-40; 42:32-35; 45:3-6; 88:17-20
Translation
The earth and sky were unknown worlds to me
Only the expanse of mother's bosom was a world to me
Every movement was a symbol of life's pleasure to me
My own speech was like a meaningless word to me
During infancy's pain if somebody made me cry
The noise of the door chain would comfort me
Oh! How I stared at the moon for long hours
Staring at its silent journey among broken clouds
I would ask repeatedly about its mountains and plains1
And how surprised would I be at that prudent lie
My eye was devoted to seeing, my lip was prone to speak
My heart was no less than inquisitiveness personified
Explanatory Notes
1. Allusion to the "spots" on the moon’s surface which are the shadows of its mountains but variously described in nursery rhymes and tales of fantasy .
MIRZÿ GHÿLIB
Introductions
This elegy is a tribute to the genius of Mirz« Asad Allah Kh«n Gh«lib. See Appendix I, No. 31 for his biography. The poem also provides a glimpse of ‘All«mah Iqb«l’s feelings of love for Delhi as an emblem of the glory of the Muslim civilization in the Indian sub-continent, which reached its zenith during the reign of Sh«hjah«n (1592-1666, reigned 1627-58), the famous Mughal Emperor of India and the builder of the T«j Mahal. The love and pride of ‘All«mah Iqb«l for the period of the glory of Muslims and Islam during the rise of the Islamic civilization, and his pathos at the decay of this civilization appear throughout his works, including B«ng-i-Dar«.
Translation
Through you the secret was revealed to the human intellect
That innumerable enigmas are solved by human intellect
You were the complete soul, literary assembly was your body
You adorned as well as remained veiled from the assembly 1
Your eye is longing to witness that veiled Beauty
Which is veiled in everything as the pathos of life 2
The assemblage of existence is rich with your harp
As mountain's silence by the brook's melodious harp
The garden of your imagination bestows glory on the universe
From the field of your thought worlds grow like meadows
Life is concealed in the humor of your verse
Picture's lips move with your command of language
Speech is very proud of the elegance of your miraculous lips
Thurayyah is astonished at your style's elegance
Beloved of literature itself loves your style
Delhi's bud is mocking at the rose of Shiraz 3
Ah! You are resting in the midst of Delhi’s ruins
Your counterpart is resting in the Weimar's 4 garden
Matching you in literary elegance is not possible
Till maturity of thought and imagination are combined
Ah! What has befallen the land of India!
Ah! The inspirer of the super-critical eye!
The lock of Urdu's hair still craves for combing
This candle still craves for moth's heart-felt pathos
O Jahanabad 5 ! O cradle of learning and art
Your entire super-structure is a silent lament
The sun and the moon are asleep in every speck of your dust
Though innumerable other gems are also hidden in your dust 6
Does another world-famous person like him also lie buried in you?
Does another gem like him also lie concealed in you?
Explanatory Notes
1. This is an allusion to the lack of recognition of Gh«lib's genius at the court of Bah«dur Shah, the last Mughal Emperor of India. It also means that, though you adorned the literary assemblies and were bodily visible, your real self could not be seen except by those with insight.
2. This refers to the Sufi concept of Waédat al-Wujëd according to which everything in the universe is God in different forms. For details see the controversy of "Waédat al-Wujëd and Waédat al-Shuhëd in Chapter 3. I have stated there that ‘All«mah Iqb«l believed in the former concept earlier in his life and changed over to the latter later on.
3. This is an allusion to Muéammad Shams al-Dân £«fiz (d. 1389), who was an eminent Persian poet of Iran and lived in Shâr«z. He specialized in ghazal, which is also Gh«lib's specialty.
4. This alludes to the famous German poet Goethe who is buried in Weimar, Germany. See Appendix I, No. 35 for his biography.
5. This is an abbreviation for Sh«hjah«nab«d, which is the original name of Delhi after its construction under the Mughal Emperor Sh«hjah«n, who reconstructed it and added the famous Red Fort and the J«mi`a Masjid together with the whole of what is the Old Delhi now.
6. This alludes to the antiquity of Delhi, which goes back to several millennia. During the major part of this long period it was the capital of some kingdom of the Indian sub-continent. As such it was always the abode of the elite of the age.
THE CLOUD ON THE MOUNTAIN
Introduction
This short and beautiful poem shows that the cloud, which is commonplace to the un-initiated person, is at once a source of happiness and benevolence of God and a guide towards Him for the initiated.
Translation
Elevation bestows the sky's nearness to my abode
I am the mountain's cloud, my skirt sprinkles roses
Now the wilderness, now the rose garden is my abode
City and wilderness are mine, ocean is mine, forest is mine
If I want to return to some valley for the night
The mountain's verdure is my carpet of velvet
Nature has taught me to be a pearl spreader
To chant the camel song for the camel of the Beloved of Mercy
To be the comforter of the dispirited farmer's heart
To be the elegance of the assembly of the garden's trees
I spread out over the face of the earth like the locks
I get arranged and adorned by the breeze's 1
I tantalize the expecting eye from a distance
As I pass silently over some habitation
As I approach strolling towards a brook's bank
I endow the brook with ear rings of whirlpools
I am the hope of the freshly grown field's verdure
I am the ocean's offspring, I am nourished by the sun
I gave ocean's tumult to the mountain spring
I charmed the birds into thrilling chants
I pronounced "Rise"2 standing by the verdure's head
I conferred the taste for smile to the rose-bud
By my benevolence farmers' huts on the mountain side
Are converted into bed chambers of the opulent
Explanatory Notes
1. This is a beautiful imagery of the way in which wind channels the pieces of cloud together and brings the benevolent rain to the parched earth as well as scatters the clouds away when no longer needed.
2. This is an allusion to the miracle of S.‘¥s« A.S. in which, he used to raise the dead to life by pronouncing "Qum bi Idhnillah" (Rise with the permission of God) (The Holy Qur’«n 5:110). Just as S.‘¥s« A.S. used to raise the dead to life with the permission of God so does the rain from cloud raise the apparently dead vegetation to life with the permission of God (The Holy Qur’«n 78:14-16).
A SPIDER AND A FLY
(Adopted for Children)
Introduction
This poem and the six which follow it are apologues with lessons and morals for children. This one has two lessons, viz. (i) that exquisite beauty exists in the whole creation of God, even in humble objects like the spider's nest and the fly's body. This must be admired, and (ii) falling to flattery is an evil which leads to destruction and must be avoided.
Translation
One day a spider said to a fly
"Though you pass this way daily
My hut has never been honored by you
By making a chance visit inside by you
Though depriving strangers of a visit does not matter
Evading the near and dear ones does not look good
My house will be honored by a visit by you
A ladder is before you if you decide to step in
Hearing this the fly said to the spider,
"Sire, you should entice some simpleton thus
This fly would never be pulled into your net
Whoever climbed your net could never step down"
The spider said, "How strange, you consider me a cheat
I have never seen a simpleton like you in the world
I only wanted to entertain you
I had no personal gain in view
You have come flying from some unknown distant place
Resting for a while in my house would not harm you
Many things in this house are worth your seeing
Though apparently a humble hut you are seeing
Dainty drapes are hanging from the doors
And I have decorated the walls with mirrors
Beddings are available for guests’ comforts
Not to everyone’s lot do fall these comforts".
The fly said, "All this may very well be
But do not expect me to enter your house
"May God protect me from these soft beds
Once asleep in them getting up again is impossible"
The spider spoke to itself on hearing this talk
"How to trap it? This wretched fellow is clever
Many desires are fulfilled with flattery in the world
All in the world are enslaved with flattery"
Thinking this the spider spoke to the fly thus!
"Madam, God has bestowed great honors on you!
Everyone loves your beautiful face
Even if someone sees you for the first time
Your eyes look like clusters of glittering diamonds
God has adorned your beautiful head with a plume
This beauty, this dress, this elegance, this neatness!
And all this is very much enhanced by singing in flight".
The fly was touched by this flattery
And spoke, "I do not fear you any more
I hate the habit of declining requests
Disappointing somebody is bad indeed"
Saying this it flew from its place
When it got close the spider snapped it
The spider had been starving for many days
The fly provided a good leisurely meal
A MOUNTAIN AND A SQUIRREL
(Adopted for Children from Ralph Waldo Emerson)
Introduction
See Appendix I , No.24 for the biography of Ralph Waldo Emerson.
Translation
A mountain was saying this to a squirrel
"Commit suicide if you have self-respect
You are insignificant, still so arrogant, how strange!
You are neither wise, nor intelligent! not even shrewd!
It is strange when the insignificant pose as important!
When the stupid ones like you pose as intelligent!
You are no match in comparison with my splendor
Even the earth is low compared with my splendor
The grandeur of mine does not fall to your lot
The poor animal cannot equal the great mountain!"
On hearing this the squirrel said, "Hold your tongue!
These are immature thoughts, expel them from your heart!
I do not care if I am not large like you!
You are not a pretty little thing like me
Everything shows the Omni-potence of God
Some large, some small, is the wisdom of God
He has created you large in the world
And He has taught me climbing large trees
You are unable to walk a single step
Only large size! What other greatness have you?
If you are large show me some of the skills I have
Show me how you break this beetle nut as I can
Nothing is useless in this world
Nothing is bad in God's creation
A COW AND A GOAT
(Adopted for Children)
Introduction
The lesson of this apologue is that the peace and prosperity of the denizens of the earth is possible only through the proper management of the unlimited resources bestowed by God on the earth and that such management can produce the desired results only by the judicious use of the talents very graciously bestowed by God upon Man. In this respect Man is the masterpiece of creation and is higher than the rest of God's creation.
Translation
There was a verdant pasture somewhere
Whose land was the very picture of beauty
How can the beauty of that elegance be described
Brooks of sparkling water were running on every side
Many were the pomegranate trees
And so were the shady pipal 1 trees
Cool breeze flowed everywhere
Birds were singing everywhere
A goat arrived at a brook's bank from somewhere
It came browsing from somewhere in the nearby land
As she stopped and looked around
She noticed a cow standing by
The goat first presented her compliments to the cow
Then respectfully started this conversation
"How are you! Madam Cow"?
The cow replied, "Not too well
"My life is a mere existence
My life is a complete agony
My life is in danger, what can I say?
My luck is bad, what can I say?
I am surprised at the state of affairs
I am cursing the evil people
The poor ones like us are powerless
Misfortunes surround the ones like us
None should nicely deal with Man
May God protect us from Man!
He murmurs if my milk declines
He sells me if my weight declines
He subdues us with cleverness!
Alluring, he always subjugates us!
I nurse his children with milk
I give them new life with milk
My goodness is repaid with evil
My prayer to God is for mercy!"
Having heard the cow's story like this
The goat replied, "This complaint is unjust
Though truth is always bitter
I shall speak what is fair
This pasture, and this cool breeze
This green grass and this shade
Such comforts, were beyond our lot!
They were a far cry for us speechless poor!
We owe these pleasures to Man
We owe all our happiness to Man
We derive all our prosperity from him
What is better for us, freedom or bondage to him?
Hundreds of dangers lurk in the wilderness
May God protect us from the wilderness!
We are heavily indebted to him
Unjust is our complaint against him
If you appreciate the life's comforts
You would never complain against Man"
Hearing all this the cow felt embarrassed
She was sorry for complaining against Man
She mused over the good and the bad
And thoughtfully she said this
"Small though is the body of the goat
Convincing is the advice of the goat!"
Explanatory Notes
1. Pâpal - A large shady tree of the Indian sub-continent.
THE CHILD'S INVOCATION
(Adopted for Children)
Introduction
This short poem contains the ideal wish of a Muslim child. It is frequently taught to and memorized by the Muslim children in the Indo-Pakistan-Bangladesh region.
Translation
My longing comes to my lips as supplication of mine
O God! May like the candle be the life of mine!
May the world's darkness disappear through the life of mine!
May every place light up with the sparkling light of mine!
May my homeland through me attain elegance
As the garden through flowers attains elegance
May my life like that of the moth be, O Lord!
May I love the lamp of knowledge, O Lord!
May supportive of the poor my life's way be
May loving the old, the suffering my way be
O God! Protect me from the evil ways
Show me the path leading to the good ways
SYMPATHY
(Adapted for Children from William Cowper) 1
Translation
Perched on the branch of a tree
Was a nightingale sad and lonely
"The night has drawn near", He was thinking
"I passed the day in flying around and feeding
How can I reach up to the nest
Darkness has enveloped everything"?
Hearing the nightingale wailing thus
A glow-worm lurking nearby spoke thus
"With my heart and soul ready to help I am
Though only an insignificant insect I am
Never mind if the night is dark
I shall shed light if the way is dark
God has bestowed a torch on me
He has given a shining lamp to me
The good in the world only those are
Ready to be useful to others who are
Explanatory Notes
1. William Cowper (1731-1800)- He was an English poet and letter writer. Quiet, reflective verse and hymns were his speciality. These attributes brought a new spirit into English poetry.
A MOTHER'S DREAM
(Adopted for Children from William Cowper) 1
Introduction
The moral of this apologue is that a Muslim should be patient and persevering in all adversity and loss. Wailing in adverse circumstances does not do any good to anybody. (The Holy Qur’«n 2:153-57).
Translation
As I slept one night I saw this dream
Which further increased my vexation
I dreamt I was going somewhere on the way
Dark it was and impossible to find the way
Trembling all over with fear I was
Difficult to take even a step with fear was
With some courage as I forward moved
I saw some boys as lined in nice array
Dressed in emerald-like raiment they were
Carrying lighted lamps in their hands they were
They were going quietly behind each other
No one knew where they were to go
Involved in this thought was I
When in this troupe my son saw I
He was walking at the back, and was not walking fast
The lamp he had in his hand was not lighted
Recognizing him I said "O My dear!
Where have you come leaving me there?
Restless due to separation I am
Weeping every day for ever I am
You did not care even a little for me
What loyalty you showed, you left me"!
As the child saw the distress in me
He replied thus, turning around to me
"The separation from me makes you cry
Not least little good does this to me"
He remained quiet for a while after talking
Showing me the lamp then he started talking
"Do you understand what happened to this?
Your tears have extinguished this"!
Explanatory Notes
1. See the Explanatory Note 1 in poem 10.
THE BIRD'S COMPLAINT
(For Children)
Introduction
Though outwardly this poem is a sorrowful description of a poor bird's feelings in captivity, and its pining for freedom, it is really meant to convey to the children the evils of political slavery and the blessings of political independence. Though it was very appropriate for the political conditions of the Indian sub-continent at the beginning of the present century, when it was written, it still retains its appeal as a message for attaining real independence as distinct from political independence, which is what we are struggling for at present in the Muslim world, including Pakistan.
Translation
I am constantly reminded of the bygone times
Those garden's springs, those chorus of chimes
Gone are the freedoms of our own nests
Where we could come and go at our own pleasure
My heart aches the moment I think
Of the buds' smile at the dew's tears
That beautiful figure, that K«minâ’s 1 form
Which source of happiness in my nest did form
I do not hear those lovely sounds in my cage now
May it happen that my freedom be in my own hands now!
How unfortunate I am, tantalized for my abode I am
My companions are in the home-land, in the prison I am
Spring has arrived, the flower buds are laughing
On my misfortune in this dark house I am wailing
O God, To whom should I relate my tale of woe?
I fear lest I die in this cage with this woe!
Since separation from the garden the condition of my heart is s
Continue........
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